0229590_C6FC0_solomon_negash_michael_e_whitman_amy_b_woszczynski_handbook-1

Differentiating Instruction to Meet the Needs of Online Learners

theirengagementwithlearning,theirproductivity, and their individual talents. Finally, individuals vary in preference for conditions of learning and that consideration of the multiple intelligences (Gardner,1991)isalsoimportant.Asaninstructor, it is essential to create an interesting and engaging online environment that can help settle and focus the learner just as you would want to do in a face-to-face classroom setting.

Principle 3: assessment and instruction are inseparable

Assessment and instruction go hand-in-hand. They are both ongoing. Just as in a face-to-face class, diagnostic, formative and summative assessments must be considered by instructors. In creating a differentiated online classroom, instructors must ask themselves if students have the opportunity for ongoing feedback, if they have time to revisit ideas and concepts to connect or extend them, and if students have time to reflect and set goals. In an online environment, ongoing assessment plays a crucial role.

Principle 4: The Teacher Modifies content, Process, and Products

In a face-to-face setting, instructors take time to assess on a daily or weekly basis. By doing so, the instructorcan modify content, process, or product at any point. In considering online courses, the key is to offer variety. Content, process, products, readiness, interest, and learning style are all considered in the design and implementation of the online course. This process is accomplished through discussion formats, chats, and individual and group work.

Principle 5: all students Participate in Respectful work

Instructors take time to understand their students aslearners.Theytaketimetotryandmeetstudents

where they are in order to move forward. With the instructors’ understanding of their diverse needs, students in an online class can engage in work that challenges them, but does not overwhelm them. Differentiated instruction adopts the concept of

“readiness.” Difficulty of skills taught should be slightly in advance of the student’s current level of mastery. This is grounded in the work of Lev Vygotsky(1978)andthezoneofproximaldevelopment, which is the range at which learning takes place. The classroom research by Fisher et al. (1980)stronglysupportsthisconcept.Researchers found that in classrooms where individuals were performing at a level of about 80% accuracy, students learned more and felt better about themselves and the subject area under study (Fisher, 1980 in Tomlinson, 2000). Brain research appears to affirm this as well (Jensen, 1998) explaining that learning occurs when the learner experiences neither boredom nor anxiety, when the learner is neither over challenged nor under challenged.

Principle 6: the teacher and students collaborate in learning

“Teachers are the chief architects of learning, but students should assist with the design and building” (Tomlinson, 1999, p. 12). In an online environment,youastheinstructorarethearchitect for the course. It is your responsibility to establish the course goals and objectives and to vary the instructional approaches based on the purpose and diverse needs of the students. But, students need to contribute to and take responsibility for their own learning as well. Students in an online class will come from various backgrounds, have different interests, and the like. It is important to consider what they know, what they want to know, and even how they may go about learning the content and skills related to the course. Together, you can work to set goals, monitor progress, and collaborate in learning. By offering variety in the learning and opportunities for student choice, collaboration takes place.

Differentiating Instruction to Meet the Needs of Online Learners

Principle 7: the teacher balances group and individual norms

In a differentiated class, instructors understand both group and individual norms. The instructor does not focus on making everyone the same. Instead, the instructor meets the student where they are, and works to create the conditions for that student to become the best that the student can be.

Principle 8: the teacher and students work together flexibly

To address the diverse needs of students in a class, instructors must be flexible, working with students in respect to content, process, and products based on readiness, interest, and learning profile. Consider whole class, small group, and individual learning activities throughout the design and implementation of the course. Also, take time to consider the use of various materials, both teacherand student-selected.

issues, contRoveRsies, PRobleMs: what is the iMPact to online leaRning?

Differentiated instruction is a process of teaching and learning for students of differing abilities in the same class. The intent of differentiating instruction is to maximize each student’s growth and individual success by meeting each student where the student is and assisting in the learning process. The model of differentiated instruction requires teachers to be flexible in their approach to teaching and learning.

A major challenge confronting universities is a focus on how to change the fundamental structure of teaching and learning through the use of emerging technologies. As instructors at the university level, we will need to think about

how to better respond to the growing demand for lifelong learning, and how to satisfy the increasingly diverse needs of individual students (Hartmon, 2004). The challenge is determining how technology and pedagogy fit together in the online environment. The thought of what online courses and programs can produce is captivating. Online,weasinstructorswillbeabletoofferavery rich learning environment worldwide to learners who may not otherwise have access to that kind of education. The charge for online education is how can we most effectively meet the needs of the diverse population we will serve? Can the established theories of learning grounded in the research show their effectiveness online? Ragan, the Director of Instructional Design and Development at Penn State’s World Campus, indicates that skills for online effectiveness fall into two broad categories: the design skills needed for authoring a course and the teaching skills necessary for delivering the course online. Clearly, the most important role of the online instructor is to model effectiveteachingandaccept“theresponsibilityof keeping discussions tracked, contributing special knowledge and insights, weaving together various discussion threads and course components, and maintaining group harmony” (Rohfeld &

Hiemstra, 1995, p. 91). Differentiating instruction is good teaching and it is here to stay.

why diffeRentiate? its basis in theoRy and ReseaRch

As an instructor, it is important for you to investigate instructional approaches that are sound for the online environment. Also, knowledge of the biological and cognitive factors that influence learning provides a foundation for understanding how students learn. In order for learning to occur, whether in person or online, we must meet the needs of students, giving them a safe and supportive environment in which to learn and grow.

Differentiating Instruction to Meet the Needs of Online Learners

what do we know from brain Research?

During the last two decades, research in the neurosciences has revealed new understanding about how the brain grows, develops, and learns. This information has important implications for what educatorsdoinclassrooms.Aseducators,weneed to ensure that our classes are not focused solely on dispensingknowledge,but moreondeveloping individuals who will know what knowledge and skills are important for their continued success in the complex world of the 21st century. (Sousa, 2003) With our knowledge of educational practices,wemustdetermineifandhowbrainresearch informs that practice. Given our vast background of knowledge about teaching and learning, educators are in the best position to know how the researchdoes—ordoesnot—supplement,explain, or validate current practices.

We need to differentiate instruction because we cannot do otherwise. We know too much about student variance to pretend that it does not exist or that it is unimportant. We know too much about the art of teaching to assume it can happen effectively in template fashion. (Tomlinson, 1999, p. 31)

Differentiation is rooted in educational theories. Brain research offers that individuals learn in accordance with their readiness to do so. “Tasks mustbeattheproperlevelofdifficultytobeandto remain motivated: tasks that are too easy become boring; tasks that are too difficult cause frustration” (National Research Council, 1999).

As an instructor, it is essential to create an interesting and engaging online environment that can help settle and focus the learner just as you would want to do in a face-to-face class setting. In order to do so, let us consider creating a brain-basedclassroomthatsupportsdifferentiated instruction. Creating an environment in which students feel comfortable with the instructor and

otherstudents,aswellaswithvariousinstructional approacheswillhelptoestablishanengagingclass setting.GregoryandChapman(2002)suggestthat a brain-based classroom should focus on a variety of factors, two of them being brain organization and building safe environments. Just as you take time to determine the classroom set up in a face- to-face setting, it is just as important to take the time to do so in an online environment. In this way, the online classroom will be organized and safe in contributing to students’ willingness to learn and take risks. Consider the following suggestions when organizing your course shell:

Course Syllabus

The course syllabus is typically the first formal document that students in your class will view. A syllabus serves as a guide for the student by providing them with information such as the following: course description, objectives, course materials, outline of course content, teaching methodology,gradingpolicy,courseassessments, academic integrity statement, netiquette, and library resources.

Professor Introduction

Thefirstdayofcontactwithstudentsisimportant whether it be in a face-to-face or online setting. Taking time to introduce yourself to the class through a video and/or audio introduction, in addition to a bio placed in your syllabus, can set the tone for the semester.

Office

Just as in the traditional sense, an “office” can also be created by the instructor online. There, students may post questions which relate to the course content. Instructors can also set scheduled office hours whereby students are assured that the instructor will be available for consultation during that particular time.

Differentiating Instruction to Meet the Needs of Online Learners

Class Lounge

The course lounge provides students with an opportunity to introduce and acquaint themselves with one another. The course lounge is an excellent way to begin the semester; it can serve as a place where students share information about themselves and where they can casually meet as a class throughout the semester.

Online Student Journal

Online journals provide students with the opportunity to reflect and to set goals which relate to the course content and real experiences. Journals can be created in various formats, each relating to questions to which students must respond. Instructors may ask students to consider a K-W-L format. In this way, students can take a moment to reflect upon course-related content which they already KNOW, and that which they WANT to know. They can also take the time to revisit and share what they have LEARNED. A natural progression to this, especially at the end of a semester, is to take time to set goals for future work as it relates to ongoing learning in these areas.

Units

Units have established goals and objectives and align with the overall course goals. A visually pleasingintroductionisprovidedwhichcaptivates the learner and draws the learner’s attention to the unit focus. Throughout the course of a unit, students may engage in chats, threaded or audio discussions, live classroom, or a variety of other learning experiences.

Chat Rooms

Establishing chat rooms to be utilized throughout the course of the semester (both teacherand student-selected) will help create a sense of com-

munity in the class. The chat allows the users to interact with each other via a text-based format (Blackboard, 2005).

Discussion Boards/Voice Boards

The discussion/voice board is a communication medium for posting and responding to text or audio messages. Conversations are grouped as threads which contain a main posting and all related replies to that posting (Blackboard, 2005). Discussion/voice boards provide students with an opportunity to participate in largeor smallgroup activities.

Live Classrooms

Users can ask questions, draw on the whiteboard, and participate in breakout sessions from the virtual classroom (Blackboard, 2005). In the live or virtual classroom, instructors can allow students to raise their hand to ask questions, poll, share PowerPointpresentations,orevenengagestudents to take the lead in a breakout session.

what do we know about sensory approaches to learning? auditory-visual-kinesthetic

In 1987, Rita and Ken Dunn proposed a model in which learning styles were classified as auditory, visual, or kinesthetic. Visual learners learn best through their sense of sight when cues are provided in written or pictorial form. Auditory learners learn best through hearing. In other words, some students will respond best to spoken cues and others to auditory ones. Still others learn best by doing or experiencing, often referred to as kinesthetic. By thinking about your online course and creating different activities for each of these different sensory approaches to learning, it would be easy to address some of the diversity among students. Online, you can combine a synchronous Webpresentationwithaconferencecalldiscussion

Differentiating Instruction to Meet the Needs of Online Learners

or online threaded discussion either through text or voice. In considering the sensory approach to learning, ask yourself the following:

Have I planned to accommodate the senses in my online environment through (Dunn & Dunn, 1987):

•Activities that involve spoken and heard material: voice boards for discussion, voicemails,chats,recordings,interviews,andlive classroom? (auditory learners)

•Activities that include information that can be seen or read: graphic organizers, sum- mariesineachunit,useofcolor,note-taking, pictures, diagrams, illustrations, photos, video clips, and streaming video? (visual learners)

•Activities that allow students to handle and manipulate materials: writing, drawing, equipment, and tools? (tactile learners) Activities that allow students to doand move andbecomephysicallyinvolved:fieldwork and projects? (kinesthetic learners)

what do we know about learning styles?

Silver,Strong,andPerini(2000)basetheirideasof learningstylesontheworkofCarlJung(1933)who conceptualized four dimensions of personality: thinking,sensing,feeling,andintuition.Theyalso use the work of Isabel Myers (1985) who adapted Jung’s ideas to develop the famous Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI). This model differs from sensory approach to learning in that it focuses on personality theory and not a sensory-chan- nel model. The individual components of their categories are (Langa & Yost, 2007):

Sensing-Thinking Learners (ST) or Mastery Style

Silver, Hanson, Strong and Schwartz (2003) indicate that sensing-thinking learners can be

characterized as realistic, practical, and matter- of-fact.Thistypeoflearnerisefficientandresults oriented. This type prefers action to words and involvement to theory, and has a high energy level for doing things that are pragmatic, logical, and useful. They rely on thinking to make decisions, and are concerned about logical consequences more than personal feelings. These learners perceive the world in terms of thing tangible to the senses, rather than abstract or symbolic ideas, theories,ormodels.Theyareobjective,efficient, and goal-oriented. For the instructor, it is essential to present information and provide practice opportunities for students to exercise their new learning. Students who prefer this style or possess this strength learn best through procedures. They like to perform calculations and computations. They also enjoy learning through observation, memorization, practicing, and sequencing. This needs to be done in order to remember important skills and information.

Intuitive-Thinking Learners (NT) or Understanding Style

Silver et al. (2003) indicate that intuitive-think- ing learners can be characterized as theoretical, intellectual, and knowledge-oriented. They are logical probers who want to understand complex problems. They like to be challenged intellectually and to think things through for themselves. Facile with language, they are able to speak, debate, and write extensively on a subject they have studied. These learners are always asking why and looking for logical relationships. They are interested in abstract ideas, possibilities, and the meanings of things beyond what is concrete. Students who prefer this style learn best conceptually. They use higher-level thinking skills to compare and contrast, analyze and summarize, establish cause and effect, and support or refute ideas. As an instructor, you will need to present data for the students to process. Also, you will need to probe students’ explanations in order to

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Differentiating Instruction to Meet the Needs of Online Learners

help them develop reasoning skills and an understanding of concepts.

Intuitive-Feeling Learners (NF) or Self-Expressive Style

Silver et al. (2003) indicate that intuitive-feeling learners are characterized as curious, insightful, imaginative, and creative. These unconventional students prefer to follow their own path to learning. Tending to be nonconformists, they dislike rules and routines. They are learners who need self-expression and who excel when allowed to use original ideas and solutions while problem solving. Students with this style preference describe learning that produces original work using creative application and synthesis of old skills and information. These students will like to use information in new ways. As the instructor, you will need to present students with challenges and problems to solve. You must require students to reorganize their thinking.

Sensing-Feeling Learners (SF) or Interpersonal Style

Silver et al. (2003) indicate that sensing-feeling learners are characterized as sociable, friendly, and interpersonally-oriented. These are emotionally involved students who are interested in learning about situations concerning living things rather than cold, hard facts. Ever helpful, they care deeply about people and need to interact with others while learning by sharing ideas. These students excel in a cooperative learning environment. As an instructor, you will need to provide opportunities for cooperative learning, real-life contexts, and connections to everyday life. These students learn best contextually.

Because learners have different learning styles or a combination of styles, online educators should design activities that address their modes oflearninginordertoprovidesignificantexperiences for each class participating. In considering the learning styles approach, ask yourself the

following:

Have I provided learning opportunities related to the four learning styles in my online environment?

•To acquire knowledge and skills through drill, memorization, repetition, practice and application (i.e., drill/repetition activities, demonstrations, projects, objective tests, and checklists).

•To acquire knowledge and skills through personal sharing of feelings and judgments, individual and social awareness, and collaborative group work (i.e., independent work, essays, debate, arguments, and open-ended questions).

•To think, reason, and defend conclusions through observing and describing data, comparing and contrasting, and identifying patterns and concepts (i.e., open ended discussion, projects, and portfolio).

•To acquire knowledge and skills through creative and divergent thinking, visualization and imagination, problem-solving, and metaphorical thinking (i.e., group project, cooperativelearning,personalsharing/journaling, and surveying).

As an instructor, think about how this learning style model can be applied in your online setting. Whether you are developing activities, developing assessment tools, or planning a lesson/unit for your online course, elements that will address the learning styles of the students can be incorporated.

what do we know about Multiple intelligences?

In 1983, Howard Gardner of Harvard University introduced his theory of multiple intelligences in his book Frames of Mind. In the book, Gardner suggests that intelligence is not merely a single, discrete number (IQ) that is determined by the answers to a series of items on a test, measuring

Differentiating Instruction to Meet the Needs of Online Learners

primarily an individual’s verbal and mathematical abilities. Rather, he proposes that humans possess many intelligences and that the mind’s problem-solvingcapacitiesaremultifaceted.“The concept of style designates a general approach that an individual can apply equally to every conceivable content. In contrast, an intelligence is a capacity, with its component processes, that is geared to a specific content in the world (such as musicalsoundsorspatialpatterns)”(Armstrong,

2000, p. 10).

Howard Gardner claims that all human beings have multiple intelligences. These multiple intelligences can be nurtured and strengthened, or ignored and weakened. He believes each individual has eight intelligences:

Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence

Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words. As an instructor, consider the following: essays, audio recordings, reports, interviews, research project, quizzes/tests, journals, discussions, observations/findings,oralreport,voiceboard,and written assignments.

Mathematical-Logical Intelligence

The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns. As an instructor, consider the following: research, problem-solving, outlines, predictions, calculations, statistics/data, analyzing a situation, classifying/ranking/comparing, interpretation of evidence/data, use of statistics, graphic organizers, and timelines.

Musical Intelligence

Theabilitytoproduceandappreciaterhythm,pitch and timber. As an instructor consider the following: music, poetry, jingles, background sounds and noises, compositions, and recordings.

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly. As an instructor, consider the following: color/lines/shapes, creative design, visualizations, graphic organizers, visuals, art media, poster, charts, brochures, pictures, illustrations, cartoons, illustrations of events, and diagrams.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

The ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully. As an instructor, consider the following: inventions, participation in the field, hands-on experiences, simulations, role-play, field trip, and demonstrations.

Interpersonal Intelligence

The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations, and desires of others. As an instructor, consider the following: communication with others via e-mail, discussions, chats, cooperative learning, role-play, tutoring sessions, jigsaw, and interviews.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes. As an instructor, consider the following: one-on-one conferencing with a classmate or instructor, journal entries, surveys, inventories, exams, self-studies, contracts, personal choices, independentwork,portfolio,andpersonalreflections.

Naturalist Intelligence

The ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals, and other objects in nature. As an instructor, consider the following: classifications, problem solving in environmental situations,

Differentiating Instruction to Meet the Needs of Online Learners

research, real-life situations, nature sounds, and pictures.

The implications of MI theory extend far beyond classroom instruction. At heart, the theory of multiple intelligences calls for nothing short of a fundamental change in the way schools are structured. Consider the impact of MI theory to online instruction. It delivers to educators everywhere the strong message that students who show up for school (online or in person) at the beginning of each day have the right to be provided with experiences that activate and develop all of their intelligences.

Now that we have had an opportunity to understand the basis of theory and research as it relates to the need for differentiation, let us consider how to differentiate.

solutions and RecoMMendations: how do you diffeRentiate?

When differentiating instruction, three questions that instructors must ask themselves are:

1.What do I want my students to know, understand and be able to do? (content)

2.What will I do instructionally to get my students to learn? (process)

3.How will my students show what they have learned? (product)

As instructors, not only can we differentiate content, process, or product, but we may do so according to our students’ readiness, interest, and learning profile. Readiness refers to the skill level and background knowledge that students bring with them to the class. Interest refers to the student’s preference within the curricular area. Finally, learning profile includes visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learners as well as other factors such as grouping arrangements. As you

explore how to differentiate content, process, and product, keep these areas in mind.

how do you differentiate content?

Content is what students are to learn. The standards set the context for the content that students will learn in terms of what they should know and be able to do. In an online environment, content is differentiated when you preassess students’ knowledge and skills, then match the learners with appropriate learning activities according to their readiness. Content is also differentiated when you give students choices about topics to explore in greater depth. Finally, content can be differentiated when you provide students with basic and advanced resources that match their current levels of understanding.

Although content, process, and product are intertwined, think of content in the following context:

•Tomlinson (1999) defined content as “what the teacher wants the students to learn and the materials or mechanisms through which that is accomplished. It is the subject matter or unit being taught” (p. 11).

•Content is what we teach, and what we want students to learn. It can also be thought of as input (Tomlinson, 1995).

•Content is what a student should come to know (facts), understand (concepts and principles), and be able to do (skills) as a result of a given segment of study (a lesson, a learningexperience,aunit).Contentisinput. It encompasses the means by which students will become acquainted with information (through textbooks, supplemental readings, videos,fieldtrips,speakers,demonstrations, lectures, or computer programs). (Northey, 2003, p. 43)

It is vital to be clear about what is essential in content. Clarity about what really matters in the

Differentiating Instruction to Meet the Needs of Online Learners

disciplines enables us to teach for understanding. Having a goal does matter, since we cannot teach (and students cannot learn) everything. We ought to therefore take care to teach that which is most durable and useful. Curricular goals are the springboard from which differentiation ought to begin. If, as a teacher, one is foggy about precisely what students should know, understand, and be able to do as the result of a course, unit, or lesson, instruction may be differentiated, but it is likely to generate multiple versions of fog. Furthermore, if the instructor is uncertain of the precise outcomes for a unit (and how a particular lesson or product serves those outcomes), the instructor will be unable to preassess students’ proximity to those outcomes effectively, and thus beuncertainofhowtocraftthestartofthelearning journeyforstudentswhoseproficienciesvary.In an effectively differentiated classroom, the same powerful understanding-based goals will nearly always “belong” to everyone. An instructor will begin by preassessing learners’ proficiency with those goals. With that information in hand, the instructor can assist some students in developing precursor proficiencies necessary for continued growth, and other students in extending their competencies related to the goals. Moreover, the instructor has a road map for the learning journey thatdirects ongoing assessment and adjustment of teaching and learning plans throughout the unit, just as it directs construction of the unit.

There are a variety of ways to differentiate contentaccordingtoastudent’sreadiness,interest, andlearningprofile.Asyouthinkaboutdifferentiatingcontent,process,andproduct,keepinmind that they are interrelated. We only look at them here separately to make it more manageable.

When differentiating content, take time to first preassess learners’ proficiency with the goals. Then, develop alternatives in the delivery method and content. Because students typically vary in their prior knowledge and skill levels, responsive teachers target their instruction to address significant gaps. Some suggestions, based

on Tomlinson’s (1999) work for differentiating content are included in the list below:

•Multiple texts and supplementary print resources

•Varied computer programs

•Varied audio-visuals

•Varied support mechanisms (can include audio tapes, computers, study partners, reading buddies, mentors, etc.)

•Note taking organizers

•Varied time allotments

•Contracts

•Compacting

•Complex instruction

•Group investigation

how do you differentiate Products?

Products are the vehicle through which students demonstrate what they have learned. A good product causes students to rethink what they have learned, apply what they can do, extend their understandingandskill,andbecomeinvolvedinboth critical and creative thought. Anyone concerned about teaching and learning is automatically interested in assessment. Assessment provides us withevidencetohelpanswerimportantquestions:

“Did the student learn it?”; “To what extent does thestudentunderstand?”;and“HowmightIadjust my teaching to be more effective for learners with varying needs?” Taking time to first determine acceptable evidence and then plan teaching and learning activities is important. By considering in advance the assessment evidence needed to validate that the desired results have been achieved, teaching becomes more purposeful and focused. Also, with clarity about what constitutes evidence that students have achieved desired results, teachers have a consistent framework within which they can make modifications for their students’ readiness levels, interests, and learning preferences. (Tomlinson & McTighe, 2006)

Differentiating Instruction to Meet the Needs of Online Learners

Tomlinson(1999)definesproductsas“vehicles through which students demonstrate and extend what they have learned” (p. 11). Products should help students—individually or in groups—re- think, use, and extend what they have learned over a long period of time (i.e., a unit, a semester, or even a year). Products are important not only because they represent students’ extensive understandings and applications, but also because they are the element of curriculum that students can most directly “own.” For that reason, welldesigned product assignments can be highly motivating because they will bear their creator’s thumbprint. (Tomlinson, 1995)

Tomlinson and McTighe (2006) present three assessment principles in their book Integrating Differentiated Instruction and Understanding by Design. They are as follows.

Assessment Principle # :

Consider Photo Albums Vs. Snapshots

In other words, reliable assessment demands multiple sources of evidence. In a classroom, a variety of assessments may be used to gather evidence of learning (McTighe & Wiggins, 2004), including:

•Selected-response format (e.g., multiple choice, true-false) quizzes and tests

•Written or oral responses to academic prompts (short-answer format)

•Performance assessment tasks, yielding:

Extendedwrittenproducts(e.g.,essays, lab reports)

Visual products (e.g., PowerPoint shows, murals)

Oral performances (e.g., oral reports, foreign-language dialogue)

Demonstrations (e.g., skill performances in P.E.)

•Long-term, “authentic” projects

•Portfolios

•Reflective journals or learning logs

•Informal, ongoing observations of students (e.g., teacher note taking, probing questions, exit cards)

•Formal observations of students using observable indicators or criterion list

•Student self-assessments

•Peer reviews and peer response groups

Assessment Principle # :

Match the Measures with the Goals

Assessments must provide an appropriate measure of a given goal. Consider three types of educational goals:

•Declarative knowledge: What students should know and understand

•procedural knowledge: What students should be able to do

•Dispositions: What attitudes or habits of mind students should display (Marzano, 1992)

Assessment Principle # :

Form Follows Function

The way in which we design and use classroom assessment should be directly influenced by the answers to four questions: What are we assessing? Why are we assessing? For whom are the results intended? How will the results be used?

Classroom assessments serve different purposes:

•Diagnostic (or preassessments)

•Formative

•Summative

In an online environment it is important to consider how you will utilize each of these in a variety of ways. Consider how multiple intelligences, learning styles, or sensory channels may