Unit 4. THEORY OF kNOWLEDGE

MAKING YOU THINK

Task 1. [in pairs] Formulate a definition of the term ‘Epistemology’. The beginning of your definition is given below.

Epistemology is the study or theory of ... .

Task 2. [in groups] Look at the statement below, which reflects a position on the place of epistemology among the other branches of philosophy.

Today epistemology stands in the foreground of philosophical sciences.

In groups discuss if you agree with this position. Be ready to give your reasons.

Task 3. [individually] Read the passage below which deals with the views of Greek and medieval philosophers on the problems connected with the theory of knowledge. Fill in the gaps with the names of prominent philosophers whose views you think are presented in this context. All in all you will have to fill in five names. Some of the names will be encountered more than once.

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In the 5th century BC, the Greek Sophists questioned the possibility of reliable and objective knowledge. Thus, a leading Sophist, (a)______, argued that nothing really exists, that if anything did exist it could not be known, and that if knowledge were possible, it could not be communicated. Another prominent Sophist, (b)______, maintained that no person's opinions can be said to be more correct than another's, because each is the sole judge of his or her own experience. (c)_____, following his illustrious teacher Socrates, tried to answer the Sophists by postulating the existence of a world of unchanging and invisible forms, or ideas, about which it is possible to have exact and certain knowledge. The things one sees and touches, they maintained, are imperfect copies of the pure forms studied in mathematics and philosophy. Accordingly, only the abstract reasoning of these disciplines yields genuine knowledge, whereas reliance on sense perception produces vague and inconsistent opinions. They concluded that philosophical contemplation of the unseen world of forms is the highest goal of human life. (d)______ followed (c)______ in regarding abstract knowledge as superior to any other, but disagreed with him as to the proper method of achieving it. (d)______ maintained that almost all knowledge is derived from experience. Knowledge is gained either directly, by abstracting the defining traits of a species, or indirectly, by deducing new facts from those already known, in accordance with the rules of logic. Careful observation and strict adherence to the rules of logic, which were first set down in systematic form by (d)______, would help guard against the pitfalls the Sophists had exposed. The Stoic and Epicurean schools agreed with (d)______ that knowledge originates in sense perception, but against both (d)______ and (c)______ they maintained that philosophy is to be valued as a practical guide to life, rather than as an end in itself. After many centuries of declining interest in rational and scientific knowledge, the Scholastic philosopher (e)______ and other philosophers of the Middle Ages helped to restore confidence in reason and experience, blending rational methods with faith into a unified system of beliefs. (e)______ followed (d)______ in regarding perception as the starting point and logic as the intellectual procedure for arriving at reliable knowledge of nature, but he considered faith in scriptural authority as the main source of religious belief. Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2002. © 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation.

Task 4. [individually, then in pairs] Read the passage below to answer the questions on the right. Some of the questions check your understanding of the information contained in the passage, the others reveal your background knowledge on the topic.

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Epistemology has long been the last to be regarded as a distinct investigation and to receive a special systematic treatment. In older philosophers are found partial discussions, not yet coordinated and regarding only special aspects of the problem. At the beginning of philosophical investigation, as well as at the beginning of cognitive^1 life in the individual, knowledge and certitude^2 are accepted as self-evident^3 facts needing no discussion. Full of confidence in its own powers, reason at once rises to the highest metaphysical considerations^4 regarding the nature, essential elements, and origin of matter and of the human soul. But contradiction and conflict of opinions oblige the mind to turn back upon itself, to reflect in order to compare, test, and perhaps revise its conclusions; for contradictions cause doubt; and doubt leads to reflection on the value of knowledge. Throughout history, also, interest in epistemological questions is aroused chiefly after periods characterized by ontological investigations implying the assumption of the validity of knowledge^5. As the psychology of knowledge develops, problems of epistemology grow more numerous, and their solutions more varied. Originally the choice is almost exclusively between affirming^6 the value of knowledge and denying it. For one who looks upon knowledge as a simple fact, these are the only two possible alternatives. After psychology has shown the complexity of the knowing-process, pointed out its various elements, examined its genesis, and followed its development, knowledge is no longer considered either valid or invalid in its totality. Certain forms of it may be rejected and others retained; or knowledge may be held as valid up to, but not beyond, a certain point. In fact, at present, one would look in vain for absolute and unlimited dogmatism as well as for pure and complete skepticism. Opinions vary between these two extremes; and hence comes, partly at least, the confusion of terms by which various views are designated – a labyrinth in which even the most experienced can hardly find their way.

Why has epistemology long been the last to be regarded as a distinct investigation and to receive a special systematic treatment? Which aspects of the overall problematic of present-day epistemology are touched upon in the works of older philosophers? What was characteristic of the views on knowledge at the beginning of philosophical investigation? What was the need for reflection on the value of knowledge stimulated by? How were the views on the problem of the validity of knowledge influenced by the development of the psychology of knowledge?

________________

¹ cognitive – познавательный

² certitude – вера

³ self-evident - самоочевидный

⁴ considerations - размышления

⁵ investigations implying the assumption of the validity of knowledge – исследования, базирующиеся на положении о достоверности знания

⁶ affirm - утверждать

Task 5. [in groups] The chart below summarizes the main problems epistemology deals with together with some of the approaches to their solution. Fill in the chart with a brief characteristic of each approach.

1. Does reflection also justify certitude? Is certain knowledge within man's power?	Dogmatism
	Skepticism
	Agnosticism
2. How does knowledge arise, and what modes of knowledge are valid?	Empiricism
	Rationalism
3. What is knowledge?	Idealism
	Realism

READING

MAIN TEXT. HISTORY OF EPISTEMOLOGY

Approaching the Text: Skimming

Task 1. [individually, then in pairs]

Skim the text as quickly as you can to find out how knowledge is viewed in each approach/theory mentioned. Then match the names of the approaches/theories in the first column to the short descriptions in the second column.

1. The views of Greek philosophers	(a) Knowledge is the result of organizing the information perceived on the basis of inborn cognitive structures, or "categories".
2. Reflection-correspondence theory	(b) Knowledge is identified with models aiming to represent the reality in such a way as to maximally simplify problem-solving.
3. Kantian synthesis of rationalism and empiricism	(c) Knowledge is viewed as independent of any concrete individual. A piece of knowledge can be communicated from one subject to another, preserving its existence even after the individual who carries it dies.
4. Pragmatic epistemology	(d) Knowledge is built by subjects in such a way as to maximally contribute to their adaptation to the existing conditions.
5. Constructivism	(e) Knowledge is an apprehension of necessary and universal principles.
6. Evolutionary epistemology	(f) Knowledge is created from the very beginning by the subject of knowledge.
7. Memetics	(g) Knowledge is the result of reflection of external reality by means of sense organs and other observation instruments.

In-Depth Reading