Text a

Russia has many historical trends in the development of the State government. In the Russian historical development the State and State government always played an autonomous and sometimes a decisive role. The Russian State has been greatly influenced by the reformative activity of Peter I, Alexander II, Nicholas I and the Pre-October status of state government under Nicholas II.

The Peter I’s system of administrative reforms was, without doubt, progressive and had a great role in strengthening all functions in the State. The operative control was many-faced and the original Russian empire became what it was under Peter I. The creative aim of Peter I was to achieve some most important changes aimed at a special regime of the regular State where the power of the monarchy realises the functions of State government with the help of advanced legislative activity. And the will of the monarch was the main driving force for progress. The whole great territory of the Russian empire was sub-divided first into eight and then into ten provinces (gubernii) and the provinces were sub-divided into regions. This ended the influence of zemstvo institutions. Peter I’s legislation covered all the levels of the society including the regulation of industry, the support of its priorities, the regulation of trade, the status of social groups and the activity of State apparatus and bureaucracy. A great number of people were mobilized for different governmental jobs. The system of taxation was changed. Peter I constantly took care of the modernization of administration to rationalize or modernize Russia and to make it more European he formed a new ruling class: the bureaucracy.

The reforms of Peter I certainly rationalized the government, because every collegiums (there were 11) had a general competence conferred by the State. Foreign affairs was the highest administrative collegium and finance questions came under the competence of the following three central institutions: the economic collegium (kamer-kollegiya), the office of State (shtat-kontor-kollegiya) and the revision collegium (revizionkollegiya). Peter I's reforms touched the activities of the Duma, the system of courts was changed and in Peter's reign the status of the church was changed, too. In 1720 the statute on the activities of the State collegiums, offices and institutions was given. It regulated the content, competence, functions and order of the activity of the institutions, the organization and conducting of office work. Every collegium based on the general principles produced documents according to its competence. The rationalization of the new civil service hierarchy, which abolished the traditional limitation of localities, the merging of functions and the priority of the aristocracy was reflected in the Table of Ranks of 1722, which was the last stage of the administrative reforms of Peter I.

The boyars in Russia opposed Peter's autocracy. In 1722, in order to consolidate his position, the Emperor created a civil service system with 14 ranks. This kind of system was common in 17th and 18th-century European state administration. The advisors of Peter I were usually not of noble birth and Peter the Great granted them rank. There was titled nobility - i.e. princes (velikii kniaz), dukes (kniaz), counts (graf) and barons (baron) - and even a large nobility without titles. However, the Russian rank system (tabel o rangah vysokih chinov) never totally replaced the system of hereditary merit (mestnitsestvo as placement), and thus, the titles of the rank system were neither noble nor hereditary. Only a lineage of civil service spanning over generations would normally pave the way to a higher rank.

3. Give Russian equivalents:

1. (n) empire, regime, monarch, support, bureaucracy, collegiums, competence, priority, nobility, merit, generation, lineage

2. (v) strengthen, aim at, take care of, confer, abolish, merge, replace, pave, consolidate, grant

3. (adj) many-faced, noble, common, hereditary, foreign, creative

4. Insert the correct preposition.

1. The Russian State has been greatly influenced … the reformative activity of Peter I.

2. The Peter I’s system of administrative reforms had a great role … strengthening all functions in the State.

3. The whole great territory of the Russian empire was sub-divided first … eight and then into ten provinces.

4. Peter I constantly took care … the modernization of administration.

5. Only a lineage of civil service spanning … generations would normally pave the way to a higher rank.

5. Answer the following questions.

1. By whose reformative activity has the Russian State been greatly influenced?

2. What was the creative aim of Peter I?

3. How was the whole great territory of the Russian empire sub-divided?

4. Did Peter I’s legislation cover all the levels of the society?

5. How did the reforms of Peter I rationalize the government?

6. Who opposed Peter's autocracy?

6. Read the second part of the text and answer the questions after the text.

Text B

Post-Catherinian Russia was divided into two parts: dvorieanne-run (dvorianskie) and bureaucratic (chinovnye). When filling an office, the function of the rank was to prove that a person had competence comparable to that of a person today holding a university degree. This system favoured the Russian nobility when filling posts. There was a non-titled nobility (blagarodie) corresponding to ranks from XIV to IX and titled nobility corresponding ranks from VIII to I. The titled nobility consisted of the higher nobility (vysokoblagorodie), aristocracy (vysokorodie), excellency (prevoshoditelstvo) and “profound” excellency vysokoprevoshoditelstvo). However, mostly a descendant of a nobleman would be appointed to a higher military office. Military ranks - mostly manned by noblemen - were esteemed higher than the corresponding civil ranks (chin). The court and the navy also had rankings of their own. As an example, a collegium advisor was of the same level as a colonel (rank 6) and a real advisor of the State was equal to a major-general (rank 4). The rank system formed the discretionary hierarchy around the Emperor.

The main changes in the system of State administration and civil service took place during the rule of Nicholas I. The bureaucratic model of governing of Nicholas I existed to all intents and purposes practically up to the revolution in 1917. During the reign of Nicholas I the reform of the system of government was conducted by issuing a full collection of the laws of the Russian Empire (45 volumes), including the period 1649-1825. One should note the basic document of that time: the statute on the civil service of 1832 regulated the organization of the civil service. Later on only additions were inserted. In 1834 the order of ranks in the civil service was defined. In 1846 the inspectorate of the civil office was created under the first department of the Empire Office. This department was responsible for monitoring the exact implementation of the existing normative acts which regulated the conduct of the civil service.

Alexander II initiated his reforms in 1861 by a manifesto and the abolition of serfdom. The manifesto included 19 normative acts. It elaborated the statute on the province and legal districts of jurisdiction (uezd) and the zemskie institutions. The reform of the organs of local self-government (zemskaja reforma) was conducted according to this.

Under Nicholas II there was an attempt to reform the new model of the State and its social economic organization in order to successfully harmonize the traditional monarchical community model of Russian society with the development of capitalism in the country. But that attempt proved unsuccessful. On 17th October 1905 the Tsar's manifesto on the modernization of State order was issued. According to this, the State Duma was formed as a legislative institution. The State Council became the upper chamber and had the right to veto the Duma's decisions. In other words it became a balancing factor. In practice, Russia was not yet a Constitutional monarchy. In 1906 a new edition of the collection of the main laws was issued, where the Tsar had the right to dismiss the State Duma and the State Council became the sole ruler in State and social life. The autocratic monarchy was in practice based on the landlords and aristocrats and lost credit in liberal-industrial circles. The historical experience of the civil service in Russia before 1917, the practice of creating a unique system of organs of the civil service adopted in that period, the normative acts on the organization and the functioning of the civil service deserve special attention today. The unique system of the institution of the civil service, which covered the central State, provincial and regional levels, was formed in Russia from the 18th to the 20th centuries. The civil service (corpus) was recognized as a public legal institution, which was responsible for the implementation of State politics on a high professional level. The communist nomenklatura carried out the same functions as the rank system. The position (posad) in the nomenklatura followed the post in the office or factory. This promotion list system became the new system of ranks in Russia in the 1990s.

1. What parts was Post-Catherinian Russia divided into?

2. What kinds of nobility existed?

3. Were military ranks and the corresponding civil ranks esteemed equally?

4. When did the main changes in the system of State administration and civil service take place?

5. Was the order of ranks in the civil service defined in 1834 or 1835?

6. Who initiated Nicholas I’ reforms in 1861? How did he do that?

7. What did Nicolas II want to reform?

8. The State Council became the upper chamber and had the right to veto the Duma's decisions, didn’t it?

9. When was a new edition of the collection of the main laws issued?

7. Find English equivalents from both texts.

Играть решающую роль; Российская империя; подразделяться на; бюрократия; система налогообложения; отменять; потомок; нетитулованный; коллегия; вовремя царствования; группа инспекторов; судебный орган; ведомство законодательной власти; местное самоуправление; конституционная монархия; иметь право на запрет.

8. True or false:

1. The creative aim of Peter I was to achieve some most important changes aimed at a special regime of the regular State where the power of the monarchy realizes the functions of State government with the help of advanced judicial activity.

2. The whole great territory of the Russian empire was sub-divided first into eight and then into ten provinces and the provinces were sub-divided into regions.

3. The boyars in Russia opposed Peter's democracy.

4. Russian rank system totally replaced the system of hereditary merit, and thus, the titles of the rank system were neither noble nor hereditary.

5. The titled nobility consisted of the higher nobility, aristocracy, excellency and “profound” excellency.

6. During the reign of Nicholas I the reform of the system of government was conducted by issuing a full collection of the laws of the Russian Empire.

7. Alexander I initiated reforms of Nicolas I in 1861 by a manifesto and the abolition of serfdom.

8. On 17th October 1905 the Tsar's manifesto on the modernization of State order was issued. According to the Tsar Nicolas II’s manifesto on the modernization of State order, the State Duma was formed as an executive institution.

9. Translate into English.

История отечественного государственного управления отсчитывается с образования Киевской Руси. Вместе с тем возникновению Древнерусского государства предшествовало складывание таких ранних государственных образований, как Куяба, Славия, Артания. Нахождение и размеры этих государственных центров до сих пор вызывают споры среди историков. В IX веке большая часть славянских племен объединилась в территориальный союз с центром в Киеве, получивший название «Русская земля». Со временем Киевская Русь присоединила к себе территории других славянских племен. Первоначально княжеская власть не имела постоянного характера. Функции князя состояли в предводительстве дружины в период военных действий и в поддержании дипломатических и торговых отношений с соседями в мирное время. На местах все важные вопросы решались народным собранием – вечем. Процесс формирования института княжеской власти начался со сбора дани с населения: на поселения была наложена обязанность доставлять дань в единый центр – князю. Еще одним фактором, сплотившим племена вокруг центра, стала обязанность их представителей участвовать в оборонительных походах. Племена стали сливаться в единую древнерусскую народность – «русь». Высшая политическая власть в Киевской Руси была представлена великим князем, который выступал как законодатель, военный вождь, верховный администратор и судья. Взаимоотношения с другими князьями строились на основе договоров – крестных грамот, определявших взаимные права и обязанности. Со времен первых русских князей, Рюрика и Олега, княжеская власть стала индивидуально наследственной и, соответственно, стала восприниматься современниками как особая власть, присущая только избранным людям, что в итоге способствовало укреплению и росту престижа власти. Постепенно власть князя стала отождествляться с государственной властью. По форме правления Древнерусское государство было типичной раннефеодальной монархией. Огромное значение для укрепления государственной власти имело принятие Русью христианства (988 г.). Церковь повышала авторитет князя, рассматривая его власть как богоданную.

Glossary

Adopt - take up or start to use or follow (an idea, method, or course of action).

Affiliation - the state or process of being officially attached or connected to an organization or attaching (connecting).

Apparatus - the organs used to perform a particular bodily function the specialized male and female sexual apparatus; a complex structure within an organization or system.

Aristocracy - the highest class in certain societies, esp. those holding hereditary titles or offices.

Appoint - to assign officially, as for a position, responsibility, etc.

Approve - officially agree to or accept as satisfactory.

Authority (authorities) - 1) the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience, 2) (often authorities) a person or organization having political or administrative power and control.

Autonomous - having the freedom to govern itself or control its own affairs.

Bias - inclination or prejudice for or against one person or group, especially in a way considered to be unfair.

Bicameral legislature - a legislative body having two chambers.

Cadre - a group of people specially trained for a particular purpose or profession.

Capitalism - an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.

Charter - a formal document from the sovereign or state incorporating a city, bank, college, etc., and specifying its purposes and rights.

Citizen - a native registered or naturalized member of a state, nation, or other political community.

Civil - relating to ordinary citizens and their concerns, as distinct from military or ecclesiastical matters.

Collegiums - an advisory or administrative board in Russia.

Consolidate - make (something) physically stronger or more solid; reinforce or strengthen (one's position or power).

Constitution - a body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is acknowledged to be governed.

Court - a body of people presided over by a judge, judges, or magistrate, and acting as a tribunal in civil and criminal cases.

Descendant -a person that is descended from a particular ancestor

Discretionary - available for use at the discretion of the user.

Decisive - having or showing the ability to make decisions quickly and effectively.

Deliberative - relating to or intended for consideration or discussion.

Dismissal - an official notice of discharge from employment or service

Diversity - the state of being diverse.

Dualism - the division of something conceptually into two opposed or contrasted aspects, or the state of being so divided.

Duma - a legislative body in the ruling assembly of Russia and of some other republics of the former USSR.

Edition - a particular form or version of a published text; a particular version of a text that has been revised or created from a substantially new setting of type.

Elaborate - develop or present (a theory, policy, or system) in detail

Elect - to choose someone to be a representative or a public official by voting.

Empire - an extensive group of states or countries under a single supreme authority, formerly esp. an emperor or empress; a government in which the head of state is an emperor or empress.

Excellency - a title given to certain high officials of state.

Executive - relating to or having the power to put plans or actions into effect.

Federalism - a system of government in which power is divided between a national (federal) government and various regional governments.

Government - the group of people with the authority to govern a country or state; a particular ministry in office.

Guarantor - a person or thing that gives or acts as a guarantee.

Hereditary - holding a position by inheritance.

Hierarchy - a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority.

IMF - International Monetary Fund.

Impose - to establish as something to be obeyed or complied with; enforce.

In casu – in this case.

Inspectorate - a body that ensures that the official regulations applying to a particular type of institution or activity are obeyed.

Institution - a society or organization founded for a religious, educational, social, or similar purpose a certificate from a professional institution; an established official organization having an important role in the life of a country, such as a bank, church, or legislature.

Judicial - relating to the administration of justice.

Jurisdiction - the official power to make legal decisions and judgments.

Landlord - a person, esp. a man, who rents land, a building, or an apartment to a tenant; a person who owns or runs a boardinghouse, inn, or similar establishment.

Law - the system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as regulating the actions of its members and which it may enforce by the imposition of penalties.

Legislation - the act or process of making laws; enactment

Legislative - having the power to make laws.

Liberal - open to new behavior or opinions and willing to discard traditional values.

Lineage - lineal descent from an ancestor; ancestry or pedigree.

Mandate - the authority to carry out a policy, regarded as given by the electorate to a party or candidate that wins an election.

Manifesto - a public declaration of policy and aims, esp. one issued before an election by a political party or candidate.

Measure - a plan or course of action taken to achieve a particular purpose.

Monarchy - a form of government with a monarch at the head.

Navy - the branch of a nation's armed services that conducts military operations at sea.

Nobility - the group of people belonging to the noble class in a country, esp. those with a hereditary or honorary title.

Normative - formal establishing, relating to, or deriving from a standard or norm, esp. of behavior.

Oppose - disagree with and attempt to prevent, especially by argument.

Peculiarity -a trait, manner, characteristic, or habit that is odd or unusual.

Policy - a plan of action adopted or pursued by an individual, government, party, business, etc.

Politics - the activities associated with the governance of a country or area, especially the debate between parties having power.

Privatization - transfer from public or government control or ownership to private enterprise: a campaign promise to privatize some of the public lands.

Proceedings - an event or a series of activities involving a set procedure.

Punitive - inflicting or intended as punishment.

Rank - a position within the hierarchy of an organization or society.

Rationalize - make (a company, process, or industry) more efficient by reorganizing it in such a way as to dispense with unnecessary personnel or equipment.

Reform - the action or process of reforming an institution or practice

Regime - a government, esp. an authoritarian one; a system or planned way of doing things, esp. one imposed from above.

Regulation - a rule or directive made and maintained by an authority

Reign - the period during which a sovereign rules.

Representative - a person chosen or appointed to act or speak for another or others.

Sign - authorize a document or other written or printed material by attaching a signature.

State - a nation or territory considered as an organized political community under one government.

Statute - a written law passed by a legislative body.

Stipulate - demand or specify a requirement, typically as part of an agreement.

Subject - a member of a state other than its ruler, especially one owing allegiance to a monarch or other supreme ruler.

Taxation - the levying of tax.

Trend - a general direction in which something is developing or changing.

Trial - a formal examination of evidence by a judge, typically before a jury, in order to decide guilt in a case of criminal or civil proceedings.

Veto - a constitutional right to reject a decision or proposal made by a law-making body.