11. Word building. Affixation

Affixation is the formation of new words by means of suffixes and prefixes. Affixes may be grouped 1) according to their linguistic origin. We distinguish affixes of Germanic origin (full, less), of Romanic origin (ion), of Greek origin (ise, izm); 2) according to the parts of speech. We distinguish noun forming, adj. forming and verb forming affixes; 3) according to semantic functions. They may denote persons, quality, negation. Many suffixes originated from separate words: hood originated for the noun hood, which meant state or condition; full – полный (adj. In O.E) now it is suffix. Suffixes may change the part of speech: critic (al). All suffixes are divided into lexical and grammatical. Lexical suffixes build new word. For ex: read-readable, happy-happiness, act-actor. Grammatical suffixes change the grammatical form of a word. For ex: finish-finished, say-says, rose-roses. Very often grammatical suffixes fulfill the function of lexical suffixes. Such phenomenon is called lexicolization. For ex: color – colors – знамена; work – works – завод. Suffixes are productive and unproductive. Productive – form new word: ful, less, painter, actor. Unproductive – don’t do it: hood, childhood.

Suffixes: er-a noun-forming suffix, productive, of Germanic origin, denotes persons (painter); ism-a noun-forming suffix, productive. It has become almost international. It forms abstract nouns, denote theory, political doctrine, movement in art; ful-adj-formation suffix, productive, of Germanic origin, means some quality (beautiful, hopeful); less-adj-formation suffix, productive, of Germanic origin, meaning free of something (hopeless). Suffixes may be homonyms: ish-an adj- formation suffix, meaning nationality (English), quality in a slight degree (reddish-красноватый), likeness-значение сходства (boyish, womanish).

Prefixes change the meaning of the root of the word. We analyze them from the point of view of their productivity, origin, meaning (re-productive, of Romanic origin, meaning-again; pre- productive, of Romanic origin, means-before (prewar); post- productive, of Romanic origin, means-after (postwar).

13.Word building. ConversionConversion is such a phenomena in modern English, when two or more words belong to different part of speech and posses the same form (to smile-a smile, fall-to fall). Conversion may be the result of shading of English endings. This shedding has made it possible to use a great many words in functions of different part of speech without any change of the form. The historical changes may be briefly outlined as follows: in O.E. a verb and a noun of the same root were distinguished by their endings. For ex: the verb ‘to love’ had a form (o.e.) ‘lufian’. This verb had personal conjunctions. The noun ‘love’ had the form ‘lufu’ with different case endings. But in the course of time, the personal and case endings were lost. Then there were some changes with vowels. UA in 17 century (great vowel shift) and as a result of such historical changes we have 1 form for a noun and for a verb.

One should guard against thinking that every case of noun and verb (verb and adjective, adjective and noun, etc.) with the same morphemic shape results from conversion. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g. love, n. — to love, v.; work, n. — to work, v.; drink, n. — to drink, v., etc.) which did, not occur due to conversion but coincided as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings, simplification of stems) when before that they had different forms (e. g. O. E. lufu, n. — lufian, v.). On the other hand, it is quite true that the first cases of conversion (which were registered in the 14th c.) imitated such pairs of words as love, n. — to love, v. for they were numerous in the vocabulary and were subconsciously accepted by native speakers as one of the typical language patterns.The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf, to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor, to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon, and very many others.

Nouns are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This is the queerest do I''ve ever come across. Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He has still plenty of go at his age. Go — energy), make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move, etc.Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough (e. g. We decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm), etc.

Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the following examples show: to down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the like of me and the like of you).

20. Lexicography. Types of dictionaries Lexicography is the subbranch of lexicology, which studies different dictionaries. The problem of compiling new dictionaries is a problem of great importance. The richer is a vocabulary, the richer and more developed is the language. The dictionaries should reflect the richness of the language. It should contain all the meanings of the words. The change of the vocabulary is connected with the change of the life of the society. The dictionary should reflect all these changes. There are different types of dictionaries. They are: 1. explanatory or etymological (Webster and Skeat); 2. dictionary of synonyms and antonyms (Апресян); 3. parallel or bilingual (E-R Мюллер; R-E Смирнитский); 4. phonetic by Jones; 5. Phraseological by Кунин. Etymological dictionary learns not only the meaning, but also the usage of the word. The author of the dictionary must know the language perfectly well. When compiling a dictionary it is necessary to take into consideration that the word in one language does not fully correspond to its equivalents in other languages. For ex: to go – идти (человек, дождь, время). It is impossible to use ‘to go’ in all this cases (time flies, it is raining). Usually equivalent of the word corresponds only to one of the meaning, in other cases they are used differently. As a rule, words in the dictionary are arranged in alphabetical order. The catchword is usually given in heavy type. The part of speech to which this word belongs is usually indicated. This is of great importance especially for the English language. In English dictionaries usually pronunciation is given. In Russian dictionaries a stress is given. Sometime the pronunciation is given too. Each dictionary has its own way of showing pronunciation. Usually phonetic signs are explain in preface. The terms are usually indicated to which branch of science they belong. In England, the first English dictionary was published in the beginning of the 17th century (in the 1604). It was a dictionary of so-called hard words-words, difficult to understand. It was compiled by Cawdray. That dictionary comprised words, which were explained in the same language. This dictionary past several editions, but it continued to treat only difficult words. In 1721, The Universal Etymological Dictionary was published. This dictionary was compiled by Johnson. Johnson’s dictionary was based on historical principles and comprised quotations from the books of different writers and had literary illustrations. In the following centuries, a number of lexicographers and writers began to work at the compiling new dictionaries. The result if this great work was the appearance of the Oxford New Dictionary. It was edited by Bradley. It consisted of 123 volumes. It includes pronunciation; it shows parts of speech and etiology of words. The meanings are numbered and lettered. Each meaning of the word is dated and illustrated by some quotations from the works of the best writers (Shakespeare). From this dictionary, we learn when the word came to be used, its exact meaning and so on. We have several abbreviated editions of this dictionary. In 1811 a Concise Oxford Dictionary appeared. It has no quotations from the works of different writers. The words in this dictionary are explained in English. We see the etymology of every word and find some expressions with it. Then a Pocket Oxford dictionary appeared. Now we have 4 editions of this dictionaries.. This Pocket dictionary contains a long preface. It also gives pronunciation of every English word. At the end of this book, the author gives a list of suffixes of different origin and a list of abbreviations. To know not only the meaning of the word we should use Encyclopedia. ‘Britannica’ – dictionary on different branches of science. There are also phonetic dictionaries compiled by Johns. For ex: an English pronouncing dictionary, compiled by Johns. It deals with phonemes. In English, we have a special dictionary by Patridge – dictionary of slang and unconventional English. Only slang and vulgar words are in this dictionary. There are also phraseological dictionary compiled by Кунин. He gives phraseological combinations, unities and phusions in alphabetic order. Art the end of this dictionary we can see an article, where Кунин gives his own point of view on phraseological expressions. He gives intimidiate categories between phraseological combinations and unities. He also gives examples of intimidiate categories between phraseological unities and phusions. He gives such examples of intimidiate category as: it’s raining cats and dogs, to talk through one’s hat (бессмыслица). In this article he says, that there are 3 principal types of idiom classification: 1)grammatical, etymological, semantical or lexical. He gives examples of adjective phrases: (mad as March hair (не в своем уме)); adverbial phrases (on the alert (на страже)); verb phrases (to show the white further (струсить)); noun phrases (blue-devils (уныние).

23 Australian English (AusE, AuE, AusEng, en-AU) is a major variety of the English language and is used throughout Australia. Despite being given no official status in the Constitution, English is Australia's de facto official language and is the first language of, and is used exclusively by, the vast majority of the population.

Australian English started diverging from British English after the founding of the colony of New South Wales in 1788 and was recognised as being different from British English by 1820. It arose from the intermingling of children of early settlers from a great variety of mutually intelligible dialectal regions of the British Isles and quickly developed into a distinct variety of English.

Australian English has many words and idioms which are unique to the dialect and have been written on extensively, with the Macquarie Dictionary, widely regarded as the national standard, incorporating numerous Australian terms.

Australian poetry, such as The Man from Snowy River, and folk songs, such as Waltzing Matilda, contain many historical Australian words and phrases that are understood by Australians even though some are not in common usage today.

Spelling and grammar:

As in most English speaking countries, there is no official governmental regulator or overseer of correct spelling and grammar. The Macquarie Dictionary is used by universities and other organisations as a standard for Australian English spelling. The Style Manual: For Authors, Editors and Printers is the most prominent style guide, serving as the standard for Australian governments.

Australian spelling is similar to British spelling. As in British spelling, the "u" is retained in words such as honour and favour, and "re" is preferred over "er" in words such as theatre and for metric units such as metre, litre. The "-ise" ending is used in words such as organise and realise, although "-ize" also exists, but is far less common. Words spelled differently from British spelling, according to the Macquarie Dictionary include "program" as opposed to "programme", "jail" as opposed to "gaol", "medieval" as opposed to "mediaeval", "encyclopedia" as opposed to "encyclopaedia", and "analog" as opposed to "analogue" when used in a technical or electronic sense.Both "acknowledgment" and "acknowledgement", as well as "abridgment" and "abridgement" are used, with the shorter forms being endorsed by Australian governments. In addition to these words, the dictionary also notes an increased tendency within Australia to replace the 'ae' in words such as "palaeontology" and "faeces", and the 'oe' in words such as "foetus" and "diarrhoea" with 'e', as with American practice. Single quotation marks with logical punctuation and unspaced em-dashes are preferred, and the DD/MM/YYYY date format is used.

Different spellings have existed throughout Australia's history. A pamphlet entitled The So-Called "American Spelling", published in Sydney some time in the 19th century, argued that "there is no valid etymological reason for the preservation of the u in such words as honor, labor, etc." The pamphlet also claimed that "the tendency of people in Australasia is to excise the u, and one of the Sydney morning papers habitually does this, while the other generally follows the older form."

This influence can be seen in the spelling of the Australian Labor Party, spelt without a "u", with the atypical American spelling that was more common at the time of its formation in 1912. For a short time during the late 20th Century, Harry Lindgren's 1969 spelling reform proposal (Spelling Reform 1 or SR1) was popular in Australia and was adopted by the Australian government.[citation needed] SR1 calls for the short /e/ sound (as in bet) to be spelt with E (for example friend>frend, head>hed). Many general interest paperbacks were printed in SR1.

New Zealand English (NZE, en-NZ) is the dialect of the English language used in New Zealand.

The English language was established in New Zealand by colonists during the 19th century. It is one of "the newest native-speaker variet[ies] of the English language in existence, a variety which has developed and become distinctive only in the last 150 years" (p. 300).[3] The most distinctive influences on New Zealand English have come from Australian English, British English in Southern England, Irish English, Scottish English, the prestige Received Pronunciation, and the Maori language.[4] New Zealand English is similar to Australian English in pronunciation, with some key differences. One of the most prominent differences is the realisation of /?/: in New Zealand English, as in some Scots and South African varieties, this is pronounced as.

Dictionaries:

The first comprehensive dictionary dedicated to New Zealand English was probably the Heinemann New Zealand dictionary, published in 1979. Edited by Harry Orsman, it is a comprehensive 1,300-page book, with information relating to the usage and pronunciation of terms that were both widely accepted throughout the English-speaking world and those peculiar to New Zealand. It includes a one-page list of the approximate date of entry into common parlance of many terms found in New Zealand English but not elsewhere, such as "haka" (1827), "Boohai" (1920), and "bach" (1905).

In 1997, Oxford University Press produced the Dictionary of New Zealand English, which it claimed was based on over forty years of research. This research started with Orsman's 1951 thesis and continued with his editing this dictionary. To assist with and maintain this work, the New Zealand Dictionary Centre was founded in 1997. Since then, it has published several more dictionaries of New Zealand English, culminating in the publication of The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary in 2004.

A more light-hearted look at English as spoken in New Zealand, A personal Kiwi-Yankee dictionary, was written by the American-born University of Otago psychology lecturer Louis Leland in 1980. This slim volume lists many of the potentially confusing and/or misleading terms for Americans visiting or emigrating to New Zealand. A second edition was published during the 1990s.

Spelling:

-Where there is a difference between British and US spelling (such as cancelling/canceling and travelled/traveled), the British spelling is universally used.

-In words that may be spelled with either an -ise or an -ize suffix (such as organise/organize) New Zealand English prefers -ise. This contrasts with American English, where -ize is generally preferred, and British English, where -ise is more frequent but -ize is preferred by some (the Oxford spelling).[34]

-New Zealand favours fiord over fjord, unlike most other English-speaking countries.

21. Terminology is the set of technical words used in a particular subject such as physics, art, lang. study. Terminological system embraces many of specialized fields such as scientific, professional or treat areas. Every field of modern activity has its specialized vocabulary.

Term is a word or word group, which is specially used by a particular brunch of science, technology, trade, arts to convey a concept, which is specific to this particular activity.

Features of term:

Terms are deprived of emotional colouring.

They are not for general use, they are used by narrow circle of people.

Sometimes they may obtain more generalized meaning (electricity)

Terms can be polysemantic and can have synonyms.

Terms can be simple containing word or complex: electromotive force.

The origin of number of terms is Latin: index, metaphor, Present Indefinite.

They are built up according to the rules of word building.

Terms are borrowed from other languages.

Problems of terminology.

Whether term loses its terminological status when it comes into common usage or not. Most scholars think that it's quite natural that a great number of terms pass into general usage. E.g.: measles, electricity.

Synonymy and polisemy in terminology. Some scholars consider the term to have no synonyms and to be monosemantic. It sounds reasonable but in reality terms do possess synonyms and many terms are polysemantic. E.g.: to dress-перевязывать рану (medical), готовить землю к посеву (agricultural), выстраивать в шеренгу (military).

17. The branch of linguistics, dealing with causal relations between the way the language works and develops, on the one hand, and the facts of social life, on the other, is termed sociolinguistics.