25. Uk Population. National character.

Britain is a relatively densely populated country: it is more than twice as densely populated as France and nine times as densely populated as the USA. Britain ranks 18th in the world in terms of population size. The population is at present nearing 60 million people. The population is very unevenly distributed: England is an extremely densely populated country (The total population of England is estimated at 49. 1 million, Wales-at 2. 9 mill. , Scotland-5. 1 mill. , Norm. Ireland-1. 7 mill, people. England has the highest population density and Scotland-the lowest. The population of Britain is concentrated in the south • the South East is the most populated region. There are hardly any people living in the Highlands of Scotland. A third of the people in England live in the South East of the country, in London and the "Home Counties" (the region around London). The largest ethnic minorities in Britain are those of Caribbean or African descent (875, 000 people). The next largest ethnic groups are Indians, Pakistani and Bangladeshis. Overall, ethnic minority groups represent just under six per cent of the population of Great Britain. The ethnic population has evolved from the substantial immigration of people from former British colonies in the Caribbean and South Asian subcontinent during the 1950s and 1960s. Considerable numbers of Chinese, Italians, Greek and Turkish Cypriots, Poles, Australians, New Zealanders and people from the United States and Canada are also resident in Britain. There are now 3 million people from ethnic minority groups living in Great Britain. The ethnic minority populations are not evenly distributed around Great Britain, tend to be highly concentrated in the urbanized parts.

25The highest relative concentrations of people from ethnic minorities are found in London.

National character. Celts-fantasists, dreamers. Saxes-sober, practically-minded. It is because of them that the English language inherited an inclination to everything natural, simple, prosaic efficiency, fidelity to traditions, sticking to the hearth as the symbol of personal independence. Vikings-passion for adventures-call of the sea, romantic attraction towards far-off shores. Normans-people of action, and considered the ability to keep one's own feelings under control to be one of the cardinal virtues. Only history helps to understand how one nation can be simultaneously so aristocratic (Normans) and so democratic (Saxes); how fidelity to traditions and practical calculation can get along well; how a vendour can be balanced by a conqueror, and a layman-by a daydreamer. In the English character a practical Anglo-Saxon is fused with a Celtic dreamer, a pirate-bold Viking with a disciplined Norman. First and foremost feature of this nation. stability and consistency of the character of its individuals, inquisitiveness, conformity and individualism, self-control-"be able to keep yourself under control is the motto of this nation, vanity, independence, education, dignity, honesty and altruism, tact, graceful manners, exquisite politeness, ability to sacrifice one's time and money for a noble deed, ability to rule and obey, persuasiveness, goal-orientation, absence of conceit tolerance to a different opinion. The principles of "the gentleman's conduct" were made into a cult during the reign of Queen Victoria.

They don't like boasting, showing off in manners, dress or speech. They don't like displaying their emotions.

26 UK Festivals. Holidays, traditions.

Jan. , London: International Boat Show; Febr. , York: Jorvik Viking Festival; April, Jersey: Jersey Jazz Festival; Edunburgh: Intern-I Festival of Science and Technology; Intern-1 Folk Festival.

Holidays: Most public holidays= "Bank Holidays" but on many of these shops stay open:New Year's Day; Good Friday (hot cross buns are sold, they are toasted and eaten with butter) Easter Monday (chocolate Easter eggs on Easter Sunday; egg-rolling; rolling colored, hard-boiled eggs down a slope until they are broken); May Day (1st Monday in May); Spring Bank Holiday(last Mond. In May), August Bank Holiday(last Mond. In August):seaside towns near London, such as Southend, are invaded by thousands of trippers. An occasion for big sports meetings at the White City Stadium (all kinds of athletics); horse race meetings; a Punch and Judy Show; there is much boating activity: regattas at Henley, Christmas Day (on the Sunday before many churches hold a carol service; houses are decorated with holly, a Chr. Tree in the corner; children-a stock at the end of their bed for Father Christmas to come; a big turkey dinner, Chr. Pudding; the Queen on TV; Chr. Cake/a hot mince pie. , Boxing Day (December 26th): visit friends, go for a long walk; in the country-Boxing Day Meets (fox- hunting); in the big cities and townsra visit to the pantomime.

Hogmanay: at midnight on December 31st people hold hands in a large circle singing a song, words by Robert Burns. New Year's Eve->important festival in Scotland, has a special name, connected with the provision of food and drink for all visitors to your home then; much dancing and singing. , Pancake Day=Ash Wednesday=the day in Febr. When the Christian period of Lent begins. On Pancake Tuesday they eat lots of pancakes. , St David's Day: the Ist of March: people walking with leeks pinned to their coats. The many Welsh People who live outside Wales show their solidarity. The day-called after a 6th century abbot, patron saint of Wales (Dawi), was known as 'the Waterman". His emblem-a dove. , Remembrance Day=Poppy D. : commemoration of Brit. Soldiers, who died during the 2 World Wars. Special services are held in the churches, wreaths are laid at war memorials troughout the country and at London's Cenotaph-the annual R. Day ceremony, the 2-minute silence, artificial poppies-worn in the buttonholes. , Halloween: parties, horrible faces in potatoes, candles inside, "trick" or treat". , Guy Fawkes Night(5* of Nov. ): 1605 Roman Catholics wanted to blow up the House of Part, with James I as a king but Guy Fawkes-discovered and hanged. A dummy=a "guy" is burnt, children-in the pavements: "Penny for the guy" to buy fireworks. People prefer to live in houses, their own gardens, - flower-shows, vegetable-shows.

Wedding: the choice of date is important (not in May), the bride's parents pay for the wedding dates, get married in white, should negotiate some obstacle as they left the church. Henry Wood Promenade concerts: between July and Sept 21 :the Proms present every year a large repertoire of classical works. They started in 1895, -Sir Henry Wood formed the Queen's Hall Orchestra. The annual race for the Derby (1st week in June).

Cultural life of Gr. Br. (Daintinccinema theatre)

United Kingdom has a long history of excellence in the arts. The time and money spent on the arts continued to increase in the 20th century, particularly after World War II ended in 1945. Popular music and film have had the widest audiences. Britain provides substantial public funding for the arts. In early modem times portrait painting became important, particularly for monarchy interested in marriage opportunities abroad, and paintings of prospective spouses were often sent before making marital arrangements. By the 18th century a distinctive British style began to emerge that tended to be brighter and livelier than the darker European canvases. Sir Joshua Reynolds. Thomas Gainsborough, and George Romnev became famous for their polished and elegant portraits. Gainsborough and others painted natural landscapes and seascapes. The artworks of Opvjtj Hamilton ant^ "^ F)flSITHW depict Greek and Roman themes. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries romantic painters appeared who emphasized the beauties and forces of nature. This is seen in the landscapes of John Constable and J. M. W. Tumer. The XXth century Painters include Paul Nash, a war artist who painted scenes of landscapes and battles during both world wars; Sir Stanley Spencer, whose works often used biblical themes; and Graham Sutherland, who developed a unique style of landscape painting. After World War II such artists as Francis Bacon, whose paintings are steeped in the horrific, and David Hockney, who also designed opera sets, became noted for their unique achievements. (The National, Tate Galleries). Britain's many theaters attract crowds from all over the world. British actors, including Sir Laurence Olivier, Sir Michael Redgrave, , Sir Rex Harrison, Vanessa Redgrave. Britain has more than 300 professional theaters successfully producing plays, about 100 of which are in London, half of those in the West End district. There are approximately 300 professional theater companies; some are associated with specific theaters and some are touring companies. The world-famous Royal Shakespeare Company performs in London at the Barbican Centre and at theaters, in Stratford-upon-Avon. Famous theaters in London also include the Royal National Theatre, the Old Vic Theatre, and the Royal Court Theatre. Countless amateur theatrical groups also perform throughout Britain. The British film industry has a long history and is noted for many critically acclaimed productions and actors. In recent decades it has become largely international. The film industry in Britain developed during the 1930s after the government established a quota requiring that a certain percentage of films shown in British cinemas be made in Britain. One of the London-bom directors is All"** Hitchcock. For a brief time London became the film production capital of the world when a number of important films were made there. These included Tom Jones (1963), with an award-winning screenplay by John Osborne, and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and A Clockwork Orange (1971), directed by Stanley Kubrick. Richard Attenborough. ; Chaplin (1992), about English actor and director Charlie Chaplin;

28Belfast - city, district, and capital of NI, on the River Lagan, at its entrance to Belfast Lough, became a city by royal charter in 1888. After the passing of the Government of Ireland Act, 1920, it became the seat of the government of NI. The district boundaries of B were expanded to 115 sq km after the local government reorganization of 1973.

The city's name is derived from the Gaelic Beal Feirste (Mouth of the Sandbank [or Crossing of the River]). B's modern history began in 1611 when Baron Arthur Chichester built a new castle there. He did much to encourage the growth of the town, which received a charter of incorporation in 1613. B survived the Irish insurrection of 1641, and by 1685 it had a population of about 2, 000, largely engaged in brick, rope, net, and sailcloth making. By the late 1730s the castle had been destroyed, but B was beginning to acquire economic importance, superseding both Lisburn as the chief bridge town and Carrickfergus as a port. It became the market centre of the Ulster linen industry, developed by French Huguenot refugees under the patronage of William III of GB at the end of the 17th century. Attempts to establish a cotton industry there were short-lived, but following mechanization of the spinning and weaving of linen, B became one of the greatest linen centres in the world. By the 17th century, the town was a busy port with small shipbuilding interests, which became firmly established after William Ritchie founded a shipyard (1791) and a graving (dry) dock (1796). Since the Industrial Revolution, the chief shipbuilding firm has been Harland and Wolff (builders of the ill-fated "Titanic"), whose yard now covers about 300 ac (120 ha) and contains facilities for building vessels up to 1, 000 ft (300 m) in length. Since 1975 the firm has been completely owned by the NI department of commerce and produces steel plates for bridges as well as supertankers. At the same time, B has continued to develop as a port. The city was severely damaged by air raids in 1941.

A Roman Catholic civil rights campaign was inaugurated in Ulster in 1968, and from 1969 street riots and increasing violence took place in B. After Br troops were called in to police Catholic-Protestant disorders, the riots were marked by an increased use of firearms and bombs by both Catholic and Protestant extremists and by the slaying of civilians, police, and soldiers by the Provisional (radical) faction of the Irish Republican Army (ira) gangs. Unremitting violence continued into the 1980s.

The city is the shopping, retail, educational, commercial, entertainment, and service centre for NI, Chief exports are ships, aircraft, agricultural produce and livestock, and linen textiles. Other industries include tobacco and food processing.

Educational institutions in B - Queen's University at B (founded in 1845 as the Queen's College), the Presbyterian College (1847), and the Royal Belfast Academic Institution (1810). Nearby is Stonnont , the seat of the government of NI. From the city's airport at Aldergrove, 13 mi (21 km) northwest, services are maintained with some principal international cities; there are steamship links with Heysham, Liverpool, and Manchester in England, Glasgow and Ardrossan in Scotland, and Holyhead in Wales. B suffered a pronounced population decline between 1971 and 1981 as a result of the sectarian violence and the planned economic development of outlying areas. Pop. (1971) city, 362, 082; district (according to post-1973 boundaries), 416, 679; (1981) district, 295, 223.

What memorial commemorates Fire of London in 1666? The monument. It was constructed in City in 1671-1677. It is the column of 61 5 m high. Us height is equal to the distance from thee monument to the baker's shop in Pudding Zone, where the fire began. 311 steps ascend to the top of the column from which one can see the panorama of London

The Cenotaph. II is a simple while monument that stands in the middle of Downing Street. The banners of the dominions are around it. There are many flesh flowers at the foot. One can see the words on the monument: "The Glorious Dead". What is the "Royal Mile" in Edinburgh Street from the Castle to Holy road.

28Cardiff - Welsh CAERDYDD, city, capital of Wales (since 1955), district, and seat of South Glamorgan and Mid Glamorgan counties. C city is located on the Bristol Channel at the mouth of the River Taff, and C district is largely coextensive with the city. The town began its existence with the arrival of the Normans in the 11th c. The Norman landowner Robert FitzHamon built a fortification on the site of the Roman fort during his expedition of 1090-93 against the Welsh; and by 1150 a stone keep was erected on the mound—one of the finest surviving examples of its type in the country. Outside the castle a small walled town grew up, and it benefited from the trading privileges in a series of charters granted by either the local lord or the crown (e. g. , 1608, from James I). C acted as a market centre and small port for the coastal plain nearby. The castle and seigniory came into the possession of Richard III and Henry VII and was granted to the Herbert family of South Wales, from whom they passed by marriage, in 1766, to the Earl (since 1796, Marquess) of Bute. The subsequent development of C has been closely linked with the Bute family, who greatly improved the castle as a residence and gave land adjoining it for the creation of a Civic Centre in the early 20th c; the castle itself and its attached parkland were given to C in 1947. In 1801 the town's population was only 1, 018, but during the next 100 years growth was continuous and rapid. Canal and rail connections were constructed into the industrial and mining hinterland, and a new system of docks was developed between 1839 and 1907. By 1913 C had become the largest coal-exporting port in the world. The coal trade fell off dramatically after 1918 and in 1963 ceased altogether, but the city remained the largest in Wales, the most important shopping and service centre in the country, as well as the headquarters for many national organizations and government departments. It is also an important industrial centre, mainly for food processing, engineering, and other light industries.

C is also a tourist centre. There are some places of interest there: the Castle, Civic Centre, City Hall, National Museum of Wales, New Theatre, Welsh Folk Museum, Institute of Science and Technology and some University departments.

The magnificent Civic Centre was built early 20th century. City Hall is the first part of the Civic Centre. It houses a unique series of statues of Welsh national heroes in its Marble Hall. Other buildings include Law Courts, Welsh Office, Institute of Science and Technology and some University departments.

In its airy galleries the National Museum of Wales displays the panorama of Wales' geology, botany, zoology, archaeology, industry and art. The collections are very well planned and easy to understand. There is also a small restaurant there.

The Castle's main gate faces the central shopping area and is on the main east-to-west road through the city. The Romans were the first to appreciate C's strategic advantages but all that remains of the traditional fort they built here is parts of the old stone walls. The Normans used the existing structure to build first a wooden palisade, then a stone keep. They added more fortifications and later on, town walls. Today, although students occupy part of the buildings, the public are admitted to the grounds, the keep and some of the state rooms.

C has a theatre with a varied programme (New Theatre). The Welsh National Opera Company play regular seasons here.

Area district, 46 square miles (120 square km). Pop. (1991 est. ) city, 290, 000; (1991 prelim. ) district, 272, 600.

28Edinburgh- Scottish Gaelic DUNEIDEANN, city, district of the Lothian region, and capital of Scotland. It is located in southeastern Scotland near the southern shores of the Firth of Forth, an arm of the North Sea that thrusts westward into the Scottish lowlands. The city is about 40 miles (64 kilometres) northwest

of the River Tweed, which forms a portion of the border between England and Scotland. E in the past was a military stronghold, the seat of the Scottish Parliament, and a centre of intellectual activity. Although it has repeatedly experienced the vicissitudes of fortune, the city has always renewed itself. Today it is a

major centre for government and finance, tourism, and cultural affairs. Within its boundaries is the busy port of Leith, which lies two miles north of the city centre on the Firth of Forth.

The origins of "E" are lost in the very distant past, but there is evidence of habitation on the slopes of the Castle Rock in the 900s. By the middle of the 15th century the city had stretched only halfway down the slope, though it had roughly taken the form it was to keep until the late 18th century, when the New Town was built.

Old E was a long, narrow town, later walled, with houses jumbled tightly together down

a single main street. It became a Royal Burgh in 1329.

E is a city where the historic past lives side by side with the present, for centuries the home of Scottish Kings and Queens.

The scheme of the New Town of E was thought of in 1767, when Parliament approved the extension of the city. A competition was held and won by James Craig, a 23-year-old architect. Craig's New Town, with its wide streets and squares is valuable to 20th century Edinburgh. The city is important largely as an intellectual centre. It has one of the oldest universities in Europe — the University of E, which was founded in 1582.

The first thing one can see is a veiy large hill in the middle of E — the Rock- E Castle stands on the Rock. The main street of New Town was called George Street, after the King, who had approved the plan of parallel streets with squares at each end. On the north side of George Street was Queen Street and on the south side — Princes Street, so named after the Prince of Wales. Princes Street is the main street in E. It is also the main shopping street with shops along one side and the beautiful Princes Street Gardens along the other side. There is a special clock made of flowers (Floral Clock) in the gardens.

E is famous for many things: its art galleries, museums, libraries, its buildings such as the Castle Rock, the Palace of Holyroodhouse and especially its festivals.

E has a population of 400, 000 and is a very historic city with some of the finest architecture in Europe. Its most famous building is the E Castle which dominates the rest of the city. In summer, the famous E Military Tattoo takes place in the Castle, with hundreds of soldiers in traditional Scottish costume and

with music from pipe bands. In summer there is the E Festival. This is Britain's biggest arts festival. The city gets thousands of visitors during the festival period and every theatre, church and school hall is used for drama, music, film, mime or opera. Besides the official festival there is also an unofficial festival. Here the artists are amateurs and the unofficial festival is now even bigger and more popular than the official one. The Royal Family have a home in E — the Palace of Holyroodhouse. The area between the Castle and the Palace of Holyroodhouse is called the Royal Mile. Around this part of the city are several museums and galleries, which may be one of the reasons why E is sometimes called the Athens of the North.

The W. Scott Monument is the best-known monument in E. The monument was completed in 1844. It is in the form of a Gothic spire 200 feet high with a statue of Sir Walter Scott inside this beautiful structure. The statue was installed under the canopy of the arches in 1846. In the niches of the monument are 64 statuettes of well-known characters from Scott's novels and poems. The climb up the 287 steps to the top of the tower is well worthwhile for the magnificent views of the city.

What is the name of the park, which is famous for its exotic animals and is considered to be "the world's largest Maze"?Longleaf Safari Park

What ancient London landmark was bought by an American private company and rebuilt in Arizona? London Bridge. From Roman times until 1749 was the only bridge across the Thames Originally it was made of wood. The first stone bridge was built in 1176. A New London Bridge was constructed in 1823-1831, but it was sold to the USA in 1968-1969 for almost a million pounds It was taken away stone by stone to reassembled as a tourist attraction in Arizona. The British have a modern replacement now, opened in 1973

28. London. Edinburgh. Belfast Cardiff.

London - city, capital of the UK, lies astride the River Thames in southeastern England, 80 km from the river's estuary on the North Sea. The city was once the industrial, commercial, and political hub of a wealthy and extensive empire; it continues to be the UK's main centre of population, commerce, and culture.

Founded by the Romans as Londinium in the 1st century AD, the Great Fire in 1666, the 19th century the problems caused by rapid industrialization, heavy damage from aerial bombings during World War II Reconstruction and new development restored much of the city's grandeur, and relocation of manufacturing and shipping outside the city shrank its population and hastened its transition to a centre of international trade and finance. Tourism and retail trade are other major sectors of the city's economy, and, because L is the nation's capital, government services are also important.

The Citv of L. 3. 2 sq km in area, is the core of what is called Inner L. which contains the City of L and 13 of the 33 boroughs of Greater L. The central financial district of the City of L is located just north of L Bridge. Within this area is Lombard Street, the traditional banking street, as well as the Bank of England headquarters, the Royal Exchange, and the Stock Exchange. To the east is the fortress-castle known as the Tower of L, whose core dates from the late 1 lth c and is surrounded by constructions from many periods of English architecture. To the west lie the Inns of Court, longtime chambers and offices of barristers and lawyers-in-training, and (he Royal Courts of Justice, or Law Courts. The City of L and the City of Westminster are linked by the Strand, an avenue along which are located two of L's historic churches, St. Clement Dane's and St. Mary le Strand The City of Westminster includes Westminster Abbey and Westminster Cathedral, Buckingham Palace, the principal government offices, important shopping districts, Scotland Yard, luxury hotels, the Tate Gallery, and the National Gallery. Retail shopping areas are concentrated around Oxford Street. Kensington Road and Knightsbridge are also major shopping districts. The shops spread west and south, down such high-scate shopping areas as Sloane Street, to connect with the trendier King's Road in Chelsea.

L's East End, containing neighbourhoods such as Aldgate and Whitechapel, is now mainly within the borough of Tower Hamlets. The area, which is historically associated with the Cockney dialect, became an infamous slum during the 19th century. The East End was the most heavily bombed area of L during World War II and subsequently benefited from extensive rehabilitation.

Parks, gardens, and churchyards abound in Inner L. The most celebrated parklands are the 6 royal parks that sweep through L's West End: St. James's Park, oldest of the six, bordered on the north by the mile-long Mall that terminates at the Queen Victoria Memorial; Buckingham Palace Gardens, bordered on the east by the royal residence, Green Park, plainest of the royal parks but fringed on the east by lavish, once-private buildings; Hyde Park, with its famous Speakers' Corner for soapbox orators, the more elegant Kensington Gardens, with the Victorian Gothic Albert Memorial; and Regent's Park, home of the L Zoo and Regent's (Grand Union) Canal.

Squares and variously shaped commons are prominent features of L's landscape Of note are Grosvenor Square, site of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Memorial, and Trafalgar Square, which features Nelson's Column, a 56-metre column with a statue of Lord Nelson, hero of the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), at its top; the National Gallery borders Trafalgar Square.

L's other major cultural institutions include the British Museum, which houses collections of antiquities, prints, and manuscripts; the British Library; the Victoria and Albert Museum of decorative arts, and the music and arts complex located on the South Bank of the Thames, begun in 1951 for the Festival of Britain. The development of the city's outlying areas was promoted by the opening of the world's first electric underground railway in 1890. Major roads and rail lines radiate in all directions. Dock activity and river traffic are controlled by the Port of L Authority The L (Heathrow) International Airport is located in the western reaches of Greater L. Area City, 3. 2 sq km; Inner L, 306 sq km; Greater L, 1, 699 sq km. Pop. (1994 est. ) City, 5, 200, Inner London, 2, 434, 400; Greater London, 6, 967, 400. What is "Big Five"?Banks: The National, Westminster, Barclays, Lloids, Midland.

What is "Big Four"?The high street banks Barclays, Lloids, Midland & National Westminster bank (NatWest-1968).

What is the nickname of the Bank of Encland?The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street.

What bridge symbolizes London? Tower Bridge.

What is the famous s prehistoric monument in England? Stonehenge.

What is the most spectacular memorial to the Roman Empire in Britain? Hadrian's Wall, stretching 73 miles from the Solway Firth in the west to the mouth of the Tyne's in the east was built to protect the Roman province from the attacks of the Scots

What places, institutions, buildings and statues of the name of Westminster do vou know? House of Parliament, the

offices in White Hall & Down Street, the Royal Places, Buckingham Palace, St. John Palace, Westminster Abbey.

Where is the famous Whispering Gallery situated?/» St. Paul's Cathedral.

What are the biggest parks in London? Richmond Park.

Great Br. Between the two WW and after

Domestic matters declined in significance with the outbreak of one of the most violent wars in Britain's history, World War I. The scramble for colonial possessions around the globe inevitably led to conflicts among the European powers and to incidents that diplomacy could not easily solve. The war changed British society like no event since the Industrial Revolution. Lloyd George, who was minister of war and then prime minister expanded the use of machine guns and tanks and introduced the mortar, one of the most effective weapons in the warfare. The government fixed wages, took control of the munitions industry, ordered fanners to increase grain cultivation. The war lasted longer than anyone had predicted. The fighting was more gruesome and the weapons more destructive. Overall, the war cost Britain roughly 3 million casualties and resulted in large numbers of veterans with disabilities who returned to live in every corner of the British Isles.

The Treaty of Versailles (1919), the peace settlement for World War I, Britain absorbed some of the German colonies in Africa and received a small part of the reparation payments, but otherwise attempted to soften more severe French proposals for revenge.

The effect of large numbers of soldiers returning from the war pushed up prices and drove down wages. . Labor unions attempted to protect their members through collective action. Between 1919 and 1920 there were close to 2, 000 strikes; the most ominous was in the coal industry, which was still nominally under government control. By 1921 close to one-quarter of the British workforce was unemployed, and the high number of people without work threatened to overwhelm the national program that provided unemployment insurance. In 1926 the Trades Union Congress supported a general strike after a series of failed strikes over wages and hours in the coal industry. The general strike officially lasted nine days; it fanned fears of revolution and further divided the social classes. Workers gained little from the strike, but the Conservatives were defeated at the next election. The worldwide economic depression of 1929 struck Britain hard. Unemployment rose to 2. 5 million within a year and to 3 million by the beginning of 1933. The government put emergency measures into effect to raise income taxes on the wealthy, to reduce salaries of government workers, and to reduce unemployment benefits that were crippling the government. For the first time in a century, Britain abandoned free trade. The government placed duties on imports and encouraged the population to "buy British. " Government programs to build houses and automobiles and expand electric utilities ultimately had their effect on the domestic economy. During the 1930s the government began to nationalize utilities, including coal, and to set wages and prices in large industries such as steel.

By 1933 unemployment began to decline, especially in the newer industries, and by 1935 most sectors of the economy were recovering. Britain's share of world exports continued to shrink, however, and industries that had failed to modernize no longer remained competitive. Despite the effects of the Great Depression, Britain was still one of the great world powers. It was one of the nations and it was a leader in the League of Nations, an alliance that had been created in the aftermath of World War I to help resolve international conflicts peacefully. But a feeling of uncertainty and indecision had settled over Britain, especially in regard to its international responsibilities. The war had taken a great toll, destroying much of the generation that would now have come to power. Britain's vast empire was proving costly and difficult to maintain. In 1931 the colonies of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa became independent countries, although they remained part of the British Commonwealth of Nations. Britain finally took a stand when Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. Britain fought back, inspired by Britain's new prime minister, Winston Churchill, one of the greatest orators in the history of the nation. Even in victory, Britain was sapped of its financial and industrial reserves. It was estimated that the war wiped out more than a quarter of the wealth of the entire nation. More than 4 million houses had been destroyed or badly damaged; the result was an acute shortage of housing, especially after soldiers returned from the war. For the first time since the 18th century, Britain became a debtor nation. Fuel shortages, gas rationing, inadequate food and shelter, and one of the coldest seasons on record all added to the nation's problems. Unemployment reached 2. 3 million, and the monetary crisis worsened.

In 1948 the most far-reaching of Britain's social welfare programs was established. Gradually Britain's economy recovered. After the war, Britain still played an important role in international affairs. In 1945 it became a permanent member of the Security Council of the United Nations.

Than followed the crisis in 1966s when the UK industry was no longer competitive which again led to money problems.

UK 11. THE LEG BRANCH OF THE GOV-NT OF GB. PARLIAMENT & ITS TRADITIONS

The UK is a parliamentary monarchy with a monarch possessing limited powers as its head. Its democratic gove-nt is based on a constitution composed of various historical documents, laws, & formal customs adopted over the years.

The legislature is represented by Parliament (P)which consists of the House of Lords (HoL) & the House of Commons (HoC), & the monarch (also called the Crown). The HoC is far more influential than the HoL, which in effect makes the British system unicameral, meaning the legislature has 1 chamber. The Prime Minister (PM) — the chief executive — is a member of the HoC. Because the HoC is involved in both the leg & exe branches of the British gove-nt, there is no separation of powers between executive & legislature as there is in the US.

Election Procedure. P. is elected roughly every 5 years & is dissolved by the Crown on the advice of the PM who then calls a general election. Parliamentary sessions are held each year and begin in Oct or Nov. P. meets at the Houses of P. in London (officially the New Palace of Westminster). The P. of the UK legislates for the entire nation and includes representatives from England, Scotland, Wales, and Northlreland. Brit citizens abroad may vote for up to 20 years after left Brit.

Chambers. The HoL. (1200 membs until 1999; now =600) Now it is more a place of discussion than power & it normally passes legislation already approved by the HoC. Its membs are not elected. The HoL comprises the lords temporal (either hereditary or life peers), the lords spiritual (archbishops of Canterbury &York; the bishops of London, Durham, & Winchester; & 21 next most senior bishops), & the law lords (who assist in the judicial functions of the HoL). In 1999 the full membership of the HoL decreased by almost half (>650 hereditary peers were stripped of their seats by the HoL Act). Powers of the HoL: (1) to introduce bills (bills dealing with financial matters can only originate in the HoC); (2) to offer amendments to bills passed by the HoC; (3) to delay legislation (for up about a year, financial bills - only for a month). The Lords are forbidden to disapprove non-fin bills if the HoC passed them in 2 successive sessions (the only exception is a bill to lengthen the life of a P. past 5 years which requires the assent of both chambers). The HoL is limited in power as most Britons believe that in a modern democracy a non-elected house should only act as a forum for opinion. Though the HoL has relatively little power, many Britons would like to either abolish it completely or replace it with some form of elected 2nd chamber.

The HoC. (650 membs) It is the source of real polit power in the UK. Its membs are elected by universal suffrage of citizens over the age of 18. Groups denied the right to vote include membs of the HoL, detained mental health patients, sentenced prisoners , & those convicted of corrupt or illegal election practices in the previous 5 years. To add, some persons are excluded from standing for election to the HoC (peers; clergy from the Church of Engl, the Ch of Scotd, the Ch of Ireld, or the Roman Cath Ch; people sentenced to > year in prisn; & those with unpaid bankruptcy bills). Membs are

UK 12. THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH OF THE GOVERNMENT IN GB.

The UK is a parliamentary monarchy with a monarch possessing limited powers as its head. Its democratic gove-nt is based on a constitution composed of various historical documents, laws, & formal customs adopted over the years.

The chief executive of the gove-nt is the Prime Minister (PM) who is the leader of the party that holds the most seats in the HoC. The Pm is appointed when the monarch goes through the ceremony of selecting as PM the person from the HoC who is head of the majority party. The PM presides over the Cabinet & selects the other Cabinet membs who join him to form the gove-nt that is part of the functioning executive. Acting through the Cabinet & in the name of the monarch, the PM exercises all of the theoretical powers of the Crown including making appointments. In the past, PMs also came from the HoL. Today, in the unlikely circumstance that a peer (a memb of the HoL) is sought as a PM by one of the parties, he must first resign from the HoL& gain election to the HoC.

At times a PM comes from a party that does not quite have a majority of seats in the HoC. In such a case that party must rely on an alliance with smaller parties, the smaller parties voting with the party in power on necessary legislation. A gove-nt formed from a party without a majority in P. is called a minority gove-nt (e. g. between 1974 and 1979 a minority Labour Party gove-nt was able to stay in power because the Liberal Party generally voted with it).

The Cabinet. (Cab) It developed in the 18lh cent out of informal meetings of key gove-nt ministers during the reigns of the Hannoverian monarchs who took relatively little interest in politics. In the 19lh cent this committee evolved into an effective body that wielded the monarch's executive power. The Cab has =20 membs (ministers) alls of whom must be MPs. They are leaders of the majority party in the HoC or, more rarely, membs of the HoL. Cab ministers who head a particular geve-nt department (e. g. the Ministry of Defense) are known as secretaries of state. The Pm serves as the first lord of the treasury & as minister for the civil service. Besides the secretaries of state, the Cab includes nondepartmental ministers who hold traditional offices (e. g. the lord president of the council, the paymaster general, & the lord privy seal) & ministers without portfolio who don't have specific responsibilities but are assigned to specific tasks as needed. The lord chancellor holds a unique position. His executive duties as a Cab memb include being responsible for legal affairs in the UK, but he is also head of the judiciary, which is a separate part of the Brit gove-nt. The PM has the power to move membs of the Cab from post to post, or to drop

UK 13. THE JUDICIAL BRANCH OF THE GOVERNMENT INGB.

The UK is a parliamentary monarchy with a monarch possessing limited powers as its head. Its democratic gove-nt is based on a constitution composed of various historical documents, laws, & formal customs adopted over the years.

British legal system has been emulated throughout the world & many of its key principles & rights are part of the US law. These principles include the right to trial by jury; the right to due process of law; freedom from unlawful imprisonment (called the writ of habeas corpus); the trial system of prosecution & defense; & the presumption that a person is innocent until proven guilty.

The judicial system has its roots in the Anglo-Saxon period, when the monarch established local courts to provide justice for all subjects. Monarchs delegated the power to hear cases to royal justices, who presided over courts in the monarch's name. The British legal system relies on common law which is based on custom & on decisions in previous legal cases (precedents). Common law originated in the • 12th cent, growing out of the rules &traditions that ordinary people had worked out over time. Through the centuries common law evolved as it incorporated legal decisions made in specific cases, & it remains the basis of Brit law except when superseded by legislation. Unlike the US, Britain does not have a Supreme Court that reviews legislation to determine its constitutionality; this responsibty falls to P. Those who practice law in Britain are divided into solicitors and barristers. Solicitors perform the everyday work of the law, particularly legal matters that can be handled solely with paperwork. Barristers plead cases in court. In Scotland barristers are called advocates. Solicitors engage barristers when they believe a client needs to go to court. Eminent barristers and, since 1996, some solicitors, may become Queen's Counselors (QCs) - or "take silk" (because they switch from wearing cotton gowns to silk gowns in court). Barristers with long & distinguished careers may be chosen to become Crown judges by the lord chancellor - the head of the judicial system in England and Wales. Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own legal systems.

Britain has several layers of courts & 2 kinds of legal proceedings - criminal and civil. Criminal law is concerned with acts punishable by the state (e. g. murder). Civil law involves disputes between private parties, either individuals, organizations, or companies. The final court of appeal for both civil& criminal cases is the HoL where appeals are heard by the law lords.

Criminal cases are handled in one of two ways. Petty offenses (e. g. simple theft or vandalism) are brought before a local magistrate, or justice of the peace (JP). These unpaid magistrates are appointed by the lord chancellor. They are membs of