Минимодуль II. COMPUTER SCIENCE

UNIT 12

СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ

(THE PASSIVE VOICE)

Страдательный залог означает, что кто-то или что-то подвергается действию. Он образуется с помощью вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующей форме и времени и причастия прошедшего времени (Participle II, Past Participle), образованного от смыслового глагола.

GROUP OF TENSES	PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
Indefinite Passive	am (is, are) invited	was (were) invited	shall (will) be invited
Perfect Passive	have (has) been invited	had (has) been invited	shall (will) have been invited
Continuous Passive	am (is, are) being invited	was (were) being invited	------

EXERCISES

1. Make up sentences using the passive voice.

Pattern 1: The students attend conferences.

The conferences are attended by students.

1. During the term the students read a lot of articles. 2. They speak English in Great Britain. 3. The professor answers questions. 4. They make no mistakes in their tests.

Pattern 2: The student made a presentation.

The presentation was made by the student.

1. We discussed an experiment yesterday. 2. They published an interesting article in this magazine. 3. He wrote an essay. 4. The student made a report at the conference.

Pattern 3: The teacher will examine the students.

The students will be examined by the teacher.

1. Mrs. Collins will teach us tomorrow. 2. The students will present the results of their work tomorrow. 3. They will organize a meeting. 4. He will sign the documents tomorrow.

Pattern 4: My brother has given an interesting book to me.

An interesting book has been given to me by my brother.

1. The teacher has explained this rule to us. 2. She has already finished this work. 3. The students have learnt a lot of English words. 4. I have already sent her a message.

Pattern 5: They had finished the work by the evening.

The work had been finished by the evening.

1. The students had learnt much by the end of the term. 2. I had installed the program by 3 p.m. 3. We had had discussed that problem by 8 p.m. 4. By the evening he had written an essay.

Pattern 6: The student will have typed the documents by the time I come.

The documents will have been typed by the student by the time I come.

1. The students will have done by the time you return. 2. I’ll have learnt everything by the time you come. 3. She will have translated an article by tomorrow evening. 4. He will have looked through the papers by tomorrow.

Pattern 7: They are compiling programs now.

The programs are being compiled now.

1. The professor is examining the students now. 2. The students are solving mathematical problems 3. We are discussing these questions now. 4. She is reading a book.

Pattern 8: I was rereading the article when you rang me up.

The article was being reread by me when you rang me up.

1. We were discussing an interesting problem. 2. I was playing computer games when somebody knocked at the door. 3. The professor was examining the students at that time. 4. The students were writing a test.

2. Translate into Russian.

1. Many new experiments were carried out by our students. 2. This experiment is being discussed now. 3. This fact is often referred to. 4. Everything will be explained to you. 5. Our present number system has not been so fully developed as it is today. 6. Euclid’s “Elements” has been used as a basis for all textbooks on geometry since his time. 7. The work had been completed by the end of the term. 8. The article was being looked for everywhere. 9. Several jobs were offered to me. 10. The equipment has been brought to the laboratory today. 11. This rule is usually taken no notice of. 12. Special attention is paid to programming. 13. The great future of semiconductors has been recognized. 14. This method was worked out in our research laboratory. 15. That day he was seen little of. 16. This picture has been already looked at. 17. Many algebraic problems are solved by means of equations. 18. These data will be tested tomorrow. 19. The professor was being waited for. 20. His invention is being much spoken of. 21. They were told that they would continue their research work. 22. He is always listened to with great interest.

3. Use the verbs in brackets in the appropriate form.

1. The problem (to discuss) now. 2. The article (to translate) by tomorrow. 3. At the publishing house I (to tell) that the book (to publish) by the end of the year. 4. Many new books (to buy) by our library last year. 5. This article (to discuss) now. 6. I hope the letter (to send) tomorrow. 7. The book is of great use because some important problems (to touch) upon. 8. The conference (to hold) in three days. 9. The conference (to hold) two days ago. 10. This problem (to discuss) when I entered the laboratory. 11. English (to speak) in Great Britain. 12. The articles (to look) already through. 13. The articles (to look) already through by the evening. 14. The text (to translate) by tomorrow evening.

TEXT 1

WHAT IS AN ELECTRONIC COMPUTER?

An electronic computer is a device that can accept information, store it, process it, and present the results of the processing in some acceptable form. A most important adjunct to this definition is that a computer is told how to process the information by instructions, which are stored in a coded form inside the computer. The coded instructions are called a program (modern usage prefers the word routine). We therefore speak of a computer as an internally-stored-program device.

Any computer contains devices for five main functions: input, storage, arithmetic, control and output. Input refers to the process by which information is put into the machine. Output is the process by which the results are moved out of the machine. Storage refers to the mechanism that can retain information during calculation and furnish it as needed to other parts of the machine. The arithmetic unit is that part of the machine, which can carry out one or more of the basic arithmetic operations on the information held in storage. Finally, the control refers to those parts of the machine that dictate the functions to be performed by all the other parts.

Originally input to the computer was provided by such things as punched cards or punched paper tapes. Storage was provided by a device such as a rotating magnetic drum or by magnetic cores. Arithmetic was carried out by various electronic circuits. Output was provided by such devices as punched cards, punched paper tapes, a typewriter, or a printer, which can print a complete line of information at a time.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the words and word combinations. Transcribe them:

1. process (n.), (v.)

2. processing (n.)

3. present (v.)

4. usage (n.)

5. prefer (v.)

6. routine (n.)

7. arithmetic unit

8. control (n.)

9. refer to (v.)

10. mechanism (n.)

11. furnish (v.)

12. circuit (n.)

2. Give English equivalents of:

1. принимать информацию

2. представлять результаты обработки

3. в некоторой доступной (приемлемой) форме

4. весьма важное дополнение к этому определению

5. в закодированной форме

6. современное использование

7. устройство с внутренне хранимой программой

8. сохранять информацию в течение вычисления

9. если необходимо

10. выполнять основные арифметические действия

11. наконец

12. перфокарта

13. перфорированная бумажная лента

14. вращающийся магнитный барабан

15. магнитный сердечник

16. электронные схемы

3. Write out sentences which are in the Passive Voice.

4. Match the terms with the definitions

1. A computer

2. A special-purpose computer

3. A general-purpose computer

4. A program

5. An arithmetic unit

6. A storage (a core store, a memory)

7. A control unit

8. An input

9. An output

10. A printer

11. Peripherals

1. ______is a device that can accept information, store it, process it, and present the results of the processing in some acceptable form.

2. _______can be defined as coded instructions.

3. _______is a process by which information is put into the machine.

4. _____ is a computer that can do only one job over and over again.

5. _____is a place where data can be held.

6. ____is that part of the computer which can carry out arithmetic operations (is a device for performing calculations).

7. ______is an output device for spelling out computer results as numbers, symbols and words.

8. _______is a computer that can do many different jobs.

9. _______is a process by which the results are moved out the machine.

10. ______refers to those parts of the computer that dictate the functions to be performed by all other parts (is a device for causing the machine to perform the desired operations in the correct order).

11. _______ are the input and output devices.

5. Read and translate the text.

6. Insert in the prepositions

WHAT IS AN ELECTRONIC COMPUTER?

An electronic computer is a device that can accept information, store it, process it, and present the results ____ the processing ____ some acceptable form. A most important adjunct _____this definition is that a computer is told how to process the information ____ instructions, which are stored ____ a coded form ____ the computer. The coded instructions are called a program (modern usage prefers the word routine). We therefore speak ____ a computer as an internally-stored-program device.

Any computer contains devices ___ five main functions: input, storage, arithmetic, control and output. Input refers ___ the process ____ which information is put ____ the machine. Output is the process ____ which the results are moved _____ the machine. Storage refers_____ the mechanism that can retain information _____ calculation and furnish it as needed _____ other parts ____ the machine. The arithmetic unit is that part _____ the machine, which can carry out one or more of the basic arithmetic operations ____ the information held ____ storage. Finally, the control refers ____ those parts ___ the machine that dictate the functions to be performed ___ all the other parts.

Originally input ____ the computer was provided ____ such things as punched cards or punched paper tapes. Storage was provided ____ a device such as a rotating magnetic drum or ____ magnetic cores. Arithmetic was carried out ___ various electronic circuits. Output was provided ____ such devices as punched cards, punched paper tapes, a typewriter, or a printer, which can print a complete line ___information ___ a time.

7. Read the text translating the words which are given in brackets.

WHAT IS AN ELECTRONIC COMPUTER?

An electronic computer is a device that (может принимать информацию, сохранять ее, обрабатывать ее и представлять результаты в некоторой приемлемой форме). A most important adjunct (к этому определению) is that a computer is told (как обрабатывать информацию с помощью инструкций), which are stored (в закодированной форме внутри компьютера). The coded instructions (называются) a program (modern usage prefers the word routine). We therefore speak of a computer (как об устройстве с внутренне хранимой программой).

Any computer (содержит устройства) for five main functions: (ввода, памяти, вычисления, управления и вывода). Input (относится к) the process by which information (вводится в машину). Output is the process by which the results (выводятся из машины). Storage (относится к механизму) that (может сохранять информацию в течение вычисления) and furnish it as needed to other parts of the machine. (Арифметический блок) is that part of the machine, which (может выполнять) one or more of the basic arithmetic operations (над информацией, хранящейся в памяти). Finally, the control refers to those parts of the machine that (диктует функции, которые должны быть выполнены другими частями).

Originally input to the computer (обеспечивался) by such things as (перфокарты и прерфоленты). Storage (обеспечивалась) by a device such as (вращающийся магнитный барабан или магнитные сердечники). Arithmetic (выполнялось различными электронными схемами). Output (обеспечивался) by (такими устройствами как) punched cards, punched paper tapes, (печатная машинка), or a printer, which can print a complete line of information at a time.

8. Learn the text.

TEXT 2

FROM THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

The story of the development of devices, and machines that led to the automatic computer goes back into the past. Probably the first ancient computing machine was the abacus. This device consisted of a slab divided into areas, and a supply of small stones for use as counters.

In 1642 Pascal, the French mathematician and philosopher, invented the first machine that added numbers mechanically. In 1673, another mathematician, G.W. Leibnitz, constructed a device able to multiply numbers.

The idea of a machine which would not only add, subtract, multiply, and divide but perform a sequence of steps automatically, store data and print out the results was first conceived in 1812 by Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics of Cambridge University. But the machine had not been completely constructed. Just before World War II, Thomas Watson, head of IBM, constructed an electromechanical equivalent of Babbage's analytical machine known as Mark 1.

In 1944 the first general purpose automatic digital computer was built by John Atanasoff, a physicist of Iowa State University, and his assistant, Clifford Berry. Based on Atanasoff's ideas, John Mauchly and Presper Eckert of the University of Pennsylvania produced one of the most influential computers called the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator). It was a massive machine consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 1,500 relays. It contained 20 registers where numbers were stored. It added numbers at the rate of 5,000 additions per second. It also contained a multiplier, a “divider-square-rooter”, and other units. However, the limitations of the ENIAC became obvious very quickly as to change its function required rewiring a substantial part of the machine, which was a slow process. The solution to this problem belongs to John von Neumann. It was the stored-program concept, in which the sequence of instructions to be performed (called a program) could be entered and stored in the computer. The first machine using this concept was the EDSAC (Electronic Delayed Storage Auto­matic Computer), which was built at Cambridge University in 1949.

At the same time Mauchly and Eckert produced their own stored-program computer UNIVAC 1 (Universal Automatic Computer) in 1952. The UNIVAC 1 was a machine of the first generation. It used vacuum tubes, performed about 1000 instructions per second, and had a memory capacity of about 16,000 characters of data.

The era of the first-generation machine ended in 1959 when transistors replaced vacuum tubes. They increased computers reliability and computational speed, and reduced their volume, cost, and power consumption. The transistors were invented by John Bardeen, Houser Brattain, and William Shockley, the scientists of Bell Laboratories. The second-generation computers also incorporated advances in programming connected with the invention of new lan­guages, such as assembly languages and FORTRAN. These languages were easier for programmers’ use.

The computers of the third-generation appeared about five years after the introduction of transistor-based computers. The invention that led to these computers was the integrated circuit, or I.C., which allowed many compo­nents to exist on a single small chip. IC's were compact, cheap to produce and more reliable than transistors. One of the most important products developed from the integrated technology was the microprocessor.

The computers of the fourth generation are based on circuits containing tens and hundreds of thousands of active electronic devices in tiny elements. Research is also being done on the construction of supercomputers. The fifth-generation machines are expected to appear. They will be based on VLSI and SLSI technologies. Optical fibers, videodiscs, and artificial intelligence techniques will be incorporated into them.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the words and transcribe them

1. machine (n.)

2. automatic (adj.)

3. ancient (adj.)

4. abacus (n.)

5. area (n .)

6. supply (n.)

7. mechanically (adv.)

8. subtract (v.)

9. multiply (v.)

10. sequence (n.)

11. conceive (v.)

12. equivalent (n.)

13. purpose (n.)

14. digital (adj.)

15. physicist (n.)

16. influential (adj.)

17. numerical (adj.)

18. integrator (n.)

19. vacuum tube

20. relay (n.)

21. register (n.)

22. rewire (v.)

23. substantial (adj.)

24. character (n.)

25. era (n.)

26. reliability (n.)

27. assembly languages

28. integrated circuit

29. compact (adj.)

30. technology (n.)

31. tiny (adj.)

32. artificial (adj.)

33. intelligence (n.)

34. technique (n.)

35. Iowa

36. Pennsylvania

2. Give English equivalents of:

1. развитие устройств

2. привести к автоматическому компьютеру

3. изобрести первую машину

4. складывать числа механически

5. способный умножать числа

6. выполнять последовательность действий

7. хранить данные

8. распечатывать результаты

9. аналитическая машина

10. со скоростью

11. в секунду

12. ограничения стали очевидными

13. изменить функцию

14. медленный процесс

15. последовательность инструкций

16. в то же самое время

17. машина первого поколения

18. вместимость (объем) памяти

19. заменить вакуумные трубки

20. увеличить надежность компьютеров

21. скорость вычисления

22. потребление энергии

23. включать достижения в программировании

24. компьютеры, основанные на транзисторах

25. существовать на отдельной чипе

26. быть основанным на

27. на крошечных элементах

28. создание суперкомпьютеров

3. Mind the meaning of the abbreviations

VLSI (Very-Large-Scale Integration) – сверхвысокая степень интеграции

SLSI (Super-Large-Scale Integration) – супервысокая степень интеграции

4. Read and translate the text

5. Fill in the gaps with dates and names. Put the sentences chronologically.

Dates

1642, 1673, 1812, just before World War II, 1944, 1949, 1952, 1959, about five years later.

Names

Pascal, Leibnitz, Babbage, Thomas Watson, John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry; John Mauchly and Presper Eckert; Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley.

Sentences:

1. In_____ an analytical computing machine which could perform mathematical operations automatically, store data and print out the results began to be constructed by_____; the construction of the machine had not been completed.

2. In _____ the EDSAC (Electronic Delayed Storage Auto­matic Computer) based on the stored-program concept, in which the sequence of instructions to be performed (called a program) could be entered and stored in the computer was built.

3. In _____transistors were invented by _____ ; with this invention the era of the second-generation machines began.

4. ________the computers of the third generation based on integrated circuit appeared.

5. Based on Atanasoff's ideas, _______ produced one of the most influential computers called the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator).

6. The calculating machine that could perform addition mechanically was invented in____ by ____.

7. In _____ the first general purpose automatic digital computer was built by ______.

8. ______, an electromechanical equivalent of Babbage's analytical machine known as Mark 1 was constructed by ______.

9. In _____ ________produced their own stored-program computer UNIVAC 1, a machine of the first generation.

10. The device able to multiply numbers was constructed in____ by_____.

6. Match A and B

A

1. The abacus

2. Pascal’s computing machine

3. The computing machine invented by Leibnitz

4. Babbage’s analytical computing machine

5. Mark I

6. ENIAC

7. EDSAC

B

1. That machine was built by Thomas Watson just before World War II, it was an electromechanical equivalent of Babbage's analytical machine.

2. It was the stored-program computer built in 1949, in which the sequence of instructions to be performed (called a program) could be entered and stored in the computer.

3. That device consisted of a slab divided into areas, and a supply of small stones for use as counters.

4. That device could add numbers mechanically.

5. That machine was built in 1944. It was the first general purpose automatic digital computer. It was a massive machine consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 1,500 relays. It could perform arithmetic operations and store numbers.

6. That machine was able to multiply numbers

7. That machine was supposed to perform a sequence of mathematical operations automatically, to store data and print out the results. Its construction hadn’t been completed.

7. Choose the statements that characterize the computer generations

Computers of the first generation

1. These computers were stored-program computers based on vacuum tubes.

2. These computers performed about 1000 instructions per second, and had a memory capacity of about 16,000 characters of data.

3. These computers could only add numbers.

4. These computers used transistor-based technologies.

5. UNIVAC 1 was a representative of the computers of the first generation.

6. These computers appeared in 1952.

Computers of the second generation

1. These computers were massive machines based on integrated circuits.

2. These machines appeared in 1959.

3. These computers were stored-program computers that could perform arithmetic operations, store and print out the results of calculations.

4. These computers were based on transistors.

5. These computers incorporated the technologies that increased computers reliability and computational speed, and reduced their volume, cost, and power consumption.

6. These computers had less memory capacity than the first generation computers.

Computers of the third generation

1. These computers appeared in early 1960^th when transistors were invented.

2. These computers appeared in early 1960^th when transistors were replaced by integrated circuits

3. ENIAC was a representative of the third generation computer.

4. These computers were based on integrated circuits, which allowed many compo­nents to exist on a single small chip.

5. These computers were based on chip technologies that led to microcomputers.

6. These computers used punched cards and punched paper tapes.

Computers of the forth generation

1. These computers are widely used nowadays.

2. These computers are based on superconducting switches.

3. These computers realize the stored-program concept.

4. These computers are based on circuits containing tens and hundreds of thousands of active electronic devices in tiny elements.

5. These computers can be used for the Internet access.

6. These computers can be upgraded easily.

Computers of the fifth generation

1. These computers appeared in 1998.

2. These computers are expected to appear.

3. These computers are supposed to use the stored-program concept.

4. They will be based on VLSI and SLSI technologies.

5. These computers will be based on transistors and integrated circuits.

6. These computers will incorporate optical fibers, videodiscs, and artificial intelligence techniques.

8. Learn the text.

UNIT 13

Модальные глаголы

(MODAL VERBS)

Модальные глаголы используются для того, чтобы показать отношение говорящего к действию.

МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ CAN

1.Временные формы

PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
I can do this work. I am able to do this work.	I could do this work. I was able to do this work.	I’ll be able to do this work.

Примечания:

1. После модального глагола can (could) используется инфинитив без частицы to.

2. To be able to – эквивалент модального глагола can.

2. Употребление

USAGE	EXAMPLES
1. Выражает физическую или умственную способность совершить действие:	This bag is too heavy. I can hardly carry it. Эта сумка слишком тяжелая. Я едва могу нести ее. I can translate this text without a dictionary. Я могу перевести этот текст без словаря.
2. Выражает возможность совершить действие:	I could not take part in the discussion because I was busy. Я не мог принять участие в обсуждении, потому что я был занят.
3. Выражает удивление, сомнение:	Can she be waiting for us? Может ли быть, что она нас ждет? She cannot be waiting for us. Не может быть, чтобы она нас ждала.
4. Используется для выражения вежливых просьб (только модальный глагол could):	Could you help me? Не мог бы ты мне помочь?

МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ MAY

1. Временные формы

PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
I may open the window. Я могу открыть окно. I am allowed to open the window. Мне разрешают открыть окно.	I might open the window. Я мог открыть окно. I was allowed to open the window. Мне разрешили открыть окно.	I’ll be allowed to open the window. Мне разрешат открыть окно.

Примечания:

3. После модального глагола may (might) используется инфинитив без частицы to.

4. To be allowed to – эквивалент модального глагола may.

2. Употребление

USAGE	EXAMPLES
1. Выражает разрешение:	May I use your phone? Я могу воспользоваться твоим телефоном?
2. Выражает запрет (в отрица-тельных предложениях):	You may not smoke here. Здесь нельзя курить.
3. Выражает просьбу:	May I trouble you for a glass of water? Можно у тебя попросить стакан воды?
4. Используется для выражения предположения:	Take an umbrella. It may rain. Возьми зонт. Возможно, будут дождь.

МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ MUST

1. Временные формы

PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
You must do this work. Ты должен сделать эту работу. I have to do this work. Я вынуждена сделать эту работу.	I had to do this work. Я была вынуждена сде-лать эту работу.	I’ll have to do this work. Я буду вынуждена сде-лать эту работу.

Примечания:

5. После модального глагола must используется инфинитив без частицы to.

6. To have to – эквивалент модального глагола must.

2. Употребление

USAGE	EXAMPLES
1. Выражает необходимость, обязательность совершения действия:	He must do this work in time. Он должен сделать эту работу в срок. Отсутствие необходимости в совершении действия выражается с помощью need not: Must I go there? Yes, you must. No, you needn’t.
2. Выражает команду, настоятельную просьбу или запрет:	You must leave the room at once. Ты должен сейчас же выйти из комнаты.
3. Выражает предположение или вероятность:	He must be waiting for us. Он, должно быть (наверняка), ждет нас.

МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ SHOULD И OUGHT TO

USAGE	EXAMPLES
1. Выражает моральный долг:	He ought to behave well. He should behave well. Он должен вести себя хорошо.
2. Выражает совет (чаще используется should):	You should be careful. Вам следует быть осторожным.
3. Выражает упрек:	You should have done this work. Тебе следовало бы сделать эту работу.

МОДАЛЬНОЕ ВЫРАЖЕНИЕ TO BE + INFINITIVE

USAGE	EXAMPLES
Используется для выражения договора или соглашения (часть плана):	We were to meet after the lecture. Мы должны были встретиться после лекции. You are to present this paper at the end of the term. Вы должны представить доклад в конце семестра.

EXERCISES

1. a) Refer the following sentences to the past.

Pattern: He can install this equipment.

He could install this equipment.

He was able to install this equipment.

1. She can translate this English article. 2. He can’t finish this work in time. 3. Can they compile programs? 4. Nobody can do it better.

b) Refer the following sentences to the future.

Pattern: He can install this equipment.

He will be able to install this equipment.

1. He can take part in the competition. 2. They can make a good report. 3. I can’t buy this book. 4. Can you understand it?

2. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. Numbers can be multiplied in any order. 2. Fractions cannot be added if they have no common denominator. 3. Will you be able to solve this problem? 4. They could have taken their examination yesterday. 5. Computers are able to store information in binary patterns. 6. We shall be able to examine this apparatus tomorrow. 7. You could have asked him to help you in your calculations. 8. Can it be true? 9. Can he know programming well? 10. He can’t have read this book very quickly. 11. Can she still be speaking to the dean? 12. Can he have succeeded in solving all the problems? 13. Lines of text can be rearranged on the screen or sent to the printer. 14. Can you install this device?

3. a) Refer the following sentences to the past.

Pattern: He may be present at the meeting.

He might be present at the meeting.

He was allowed to be present at the meeting.

1. He may use my computer. 2. You may go for a walk. 3. We may put off the meeting till tomorrow. 4. You may come in.

b) Refer the following sentences to the future.

Pattern: He may be present at the meeting.

He will be allowed to be present at the meeting.

1. He may speak to her. 2. I may join them. 3. I may rewrite my test. 4. He may delay the meeting with his advisor.

4. Translate into Russian.

1. May I use these diagrams? 2. They may have worked in the laboratory yesterday. 3. The instrument may have been improved because it has become better. 4. They were allowed to take these mathematical magazines home. 5. He may study at the University. 6. He may not have heard the news that’s why he looks as if nothing had happened. 7. May I ask you to explain this rule once more? 8. He may ring me up in the evening. 9. He may have rung me up in the evening.

5. a) Refer the following sentences to the past.

Pattern: He must go there.

He had to go there.

1. She must translate this English article. 2. He must speak to her. 3. The students must to write this test again. 4. They must stay at home.

b) Refer the following sentences to the future.

Pattern: He must go there.

He will have to go there.

1. He must take part in the discussion. 2. He must learn the new words. 3. Must you speak to him? 4. I must listen to him.

6. Translate into Russian.

1. You’ll have to repeat the experiment. 2. He must have worked hard at his English. 3. It must have taken him much time to prepare for the exam. 4. I could find nothing on mathematical logic in these books and I had to look through a lot of scientific magazines. 5. You will have to work hard to finish the work in time. 6. You must turn this fraction into a mixed number. 7. We had to perform long computations to check the answer. 8. The results must be available in some way to the user. 9. Most data must eventually be stored on disk for later use.

7. Translate into Russian.

1. You should consult a specialist before you take a decision. 2. You should have tested the device more carefully. 3. You should have been more careful with this instrument. 4. She ought to have known this rule better. 5. They should have been examined the machine again. 6. Our laboratory should be provided with all necessary instruments. 7. You ought to be careful with electrical appliances. 8. You are to be in time. 9. You were to translate this article from English into Russian using a dictionary. 10. We are to meet at 2 p.m.

8. Translate the text into English.

ОПТИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЬЮТЕР

С 1970 года стало очевидным (apparent), что существует возможность (possibility) для создания (construction) вычислительного устройства (device), в котором сигналы способны передаваться лучами лазерной радиации, а не электрическим током (by beams of laser radiation rather than electric currents). Есть мощный стимул (powerful incentive), чтобы разработать оптический компьютер (to work out an optical computer). Он может работать быстрее, чем электронный компьютер. При создании оптического компьютера должны быть использованы разнообразные схемы (various circuits). Многие из элементов, нужные для создания интегрированной оптической схемы (needed to make an integrated optical circuit), конструкторы уже продемонстрировали.

TEXT 1

COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

Computer programming is the process of preparing a set of coded instructions which enables the computer to solve specific problems or to perform specific functions.

The phase in which the system’s computer programs are written is called the development phase. During this phase programmers are to write lists of instructions that will be followed by the central processing unit (CPU). The instructions of the program must be complete and in an appropriate order. Any data used by a program has to be described so that compiler knows how to store and retrieve it.

In order to avoid errors in programming logic plans should be developed. There are two common techniques for planning the logic of a program. The first technique is flowcharting. A flowcharting is a plan in the form of a graphic or pictorial representation that uses predefined symbols to illustrate the program logic. It is, therefore, a “picture” of the logical steps to be performed by the computer. The second technique for planning program logic is called pseudocode. Pseudocode is an imitation of actual program instructions. It is less time-consuming for the professional programmer than flowcharting.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the words and transcribe them.

1. process (n.), (v.)

2. specific (adj.)

3. appropriate (adj.)

4. error (n.)

5. technique (n.)

6. pseudocode (n.)

2. Give English equivalents of:

1. cовокупность закодированных команд (инструкций)

2. решать особые задачи

3. выполнять особые функции

4. компьютерные программы

5. стадия разработки

6. список (перечень) инструкций

7. центральный процессор

8. необходимая (требуемая) последовательность

9. сохранять и извлекать

10. для того, чтобы избежать ошибок

11. построение блок-схемы

12. наглядное представление

13. заранее заданные символы

14. затратный по времени

3. Read and translate the text.

4. Match A and B

A

1. Computer programming

2. A development phase

3. A logic plan

4. A flowcharting

5. Pseudocode

B

1. … is an imitation of actual program instructions.

2. … is a period of time during which the computer programs are being written.

3. … is the process of preparing a set of coded instructions which enables the computer to solve specific problems or to perform specific functions.

4. … is a plan in the form of a graphic or pictorial representation that uses predefined symbols to illustrate the program logic.

5. … is a sequence of instructions.

5. Finish up the sentences.

1. The author starts with the definition of computer programming. According to this definition… .

2. Then the author defines a development phase. It is… .

3. During this phase as the author writes a programmer should develop a logic plan which can be defined as… .

4. As to the logic plans they are … and … .

5. A flowcharting is … .

6. Pseudocode is… .

6. Give a brief summery of the text.

Expressions to be used:

1. The text is devoted to… .

2. The text deals with… .

3. The text is concerned with… .

4. The text informs on (about) … .

TEXT 2

PROGRAM ERRORS

A computer program may run from just a few instructions to many millions of instructions, as in a program for a word processor or a web browser. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second and rarely make a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take years to write, and due to the complexity such programs may contain errors.

Errors in computer programs are called “bugs”. Bugs may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases they may cause the program to “hang” – become unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes. Sometimes bugs are made for malicious intent to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a program's proper execution. Bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the words and transcribe them.

1. processor (n.)

2. execute (v.)

3. execution (n.)

4. rarely (adv.)

5. error (n.)

6. benign (adj.)

7. affect (v.)

8. subtle (adj.)

9. keystroke (n.)

10. malicious (adj.)

11. disrupt (v.)

12. oversight (n.)

2. Read and translate the text.

3. Finish up the sentences.

1. Bugs are … .

2. They may be benign and malicious.

3. Benign bugs… .

4. Malicious bugs… .

4. Give a brief summery of the text.

Expressions to be used:

5. The text under consideration is devoted to… .

6. The text under consideration deals with… .

7. The text under consideration is concerned with… .

8. The text under consideration informs on (about) … .

9. The text under consideration touches upon the problem of … .

ТЕКСТ 3

ТИПЫ ПРОГРАММНОГО ОБЕСПЕЧЕНИЯ

A

Компьютеру необходимо не только аппаратное обеспечение (hardware), а также и программное обеспечение (software) – программы для управления операциями компьютера или электронными данными (programs for directing the operations of a computer or electronic data). Программы компьютера инструктируют аппаратные средства, как провести обработку (how to conduct processing). Компьютеры могут вводить, вычислять, сравнивать (compare) и выводить данные. Программное обеспечение определяет порядок (deter­mines the order), в котором эти операции должны быть выполнены.

Обычно программы подразделяют на две категории: системное программное обеспечение (system software) и прикладные программы (application software). Кроме двух этих основных категорий также имеется программное обеспечение связи (communication software).

Системное программное обеспечение является совокупностью программ, которые управляет стандартными внутренними действиями компьютера (control standard internal computer activities). Системные программы разработаны для определенных частей аппаратных средств (are designed for the specific pieces of hardware). Эти программы называются драйверами. Они координируют периферийные аппаратные средства и действия компьютера (computer activities). Пользователю следует установить (install) определенный драйвер, чтобы активировать периферийное устройство. Например, если пользователь собирается купить принтер или сканер, он должен заранее позаботиться о драйвере (he needs to worry about the driver program in advance), хотя обычно он идет вместе с вашим устройством (it goes along with your device).

Прикладное программное обеспечение удовлетворяет определенную потребность (satisfies a specific need). Разработчики прикладного программного обеспечения стараются включать максимальные возможности в одну программу (tend to include as much as possible in one program), чтобы интерфейс программного обеспечения выглядел наиболее привлекательным для пользователя (to make software interface look more attractive to the user).

Программное обеспечение связи используется для передачи данных в пределах и между компьютерными системами (within and between computers systems). Эти программы обычно обеспечивают защиту данных (data security) и проверку на наличие ошибок (error checking) наряду с физической передачей данных между двумя компьютерами (along with physically transferring data between the two computers).

B

Компьютеру необходимо не только аппаратное обеспечение, а также и программное обеспечение – программы для управления операциями компьютера или электронными данными. Программы компьютера инструктируют аппаратные средства, как провести обработку. Компьютеры могут вводить, вычислять, сравнивать и выводить данные. Программное обеспечение определяет порядок, в котором эти операции должны быть выполнены.

Обычно программы подразделяют на две категории: системное программное обеспечение и прикладные программы. Кроме двух этих основных категорий также имеется программное обеспечение связи.

Системное программное обеспечение является совокупностью программ, которые управляет стандартными внутренними действиями компьютера. Системные программы разработаны для определенных частей аппаратных средств. Эти программы называются драйверами. Они координируют периферийные аппаратные средства и действия компьютера. Пользователю следует установить определенный драйвер, чтобы активировать периферийное устройство. Например, если пользователь собирается купить принтер или сканер, он должен заранее позаботиться о драйвере, хотя обычно он идет вместе с вашим устройством.

Прикладное программное обеспечение удовлетворяет определенную потребность. Разработчики прикладного программного обеспечения стараются включать максимальные возможности в одну программу, чтобы интерфейс программного обеспечения выглядел наиболее привлекательным для пользователя.

Программное обеспечение связи используется для передачи данных в пределах и между компьютерными системами. Эти программы обычно обеспечивают защиту данных и проверку на наличие ошибок наряду с физической передачей данных между двумя компьютерами.

TASKS

1. Translate into English the text under the letter A, then – under the letter B.

2. Define the following:

1. Software

2. System software

3. Application software

4. Communication software

3. Choose the statement which deals with the content of the whole text.

1. The headline of the text I’ve read is “Types of Software”. It is devoted to the significance of programs for a computer.

2. The text I’ve read is headlined “Types of Software”. It deals with the application of software.

3. The text I’ve read is headlined “Types of Software”. It informs the reader on the software and its two types, that is system software and application software.

4. The text headlined “Types of Software” is concerned with software and its main types, that is system software, application software and communication software.

5. The text headlined “Types of Software” touches upon the problem of software development.

4. Finish up the sentences

1. The author starts with the definition of software. He defines it as follows: …

2. He also points out some important functions of computer programs. In particular, he says that … .

3. Then the author classifies the types of software. According to this classification … .

4. Then he defines these types of software: … .

5. Give rendering of the text.

UNIT 14

СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ВРЕМЕН

(THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES)

Согласование времен – это определенная зависимость времени глагола в придаточном предложении от времени глагола в главном предложении. Если глагол в главном предложении выражен в одной из форм прошедшего времени, то прошедшее время (или будущее в прошедшем) должно быть использовано в придаточном предложении.

ПРАВИЛА СОГЛАСОВАНИЯ ВРЕМЕН

(RULES OF THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES)

ПРАВИЛА СОГЛАСОВАНИЯ ВРЕМЕН

(RULES OF THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES)

RULE	EXAMPLES
1. Для выражения действия одновременного с действием в главном предложении употребляется прошедшее неопределенное время (the Past Indefinite) или прошедшее продолженное время (the Past Continuous).	Nobody knew what he meant. Никто не знал, что он имеет в виду. He had never guessed what she was doing. Он никогда не догадывался, что она делает.
2. Для выражения действия предшествующего действию в главном предложении употребляется прошедшее совершенное время (the Past Perfect).	I knew that he had passed his exams successfully. Я знал, что он сдал экзамены успешно.
3. Для выражения действия, которое последует за действием в главном предложении, употребляется особое время, которое называется будущее в прошедшем (Future in the Past). Оно образуется с помощью вспомогате-льных глаголов would/ should для первого лица единственного и множественного числа и would для всех остальных лиц.	He knew that she would take part in the conference. Он знал, что она примет участие в конференции.

Правило согласования времен не соблюдается, если в придаточном предложении выражается общепризнанная истина:

The students knew that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.

Согласование времен также не соблюдается, если в придаточном предложении выражено обычное, привычное или характерное действие:

He asked the guard what time the train usually starts.