#140_Разговорные_темы(I-II)
.pdfhoist [hOIst] v. – поднимать slew [sl³ ] v. – поворачивать
luff [lAf] v.– перемещать по горизонтали, изменять вылет стрелы gantry ['gxntrI] a.– портальный ,эстакадный, козловой
overhead ['ouvqhed] n.– мостовой кран crawler ['kr² lq] n. – гусеница
range [reInG] v.– колебаться в пределах
jib [GIb] n.– стрела грузоподъемного крана purpose ['pWpqs] n. – цель
convertible [kqn'vWtqbl] a. – преобразуемый versatility ["vWsq'tIlItI] n. – универсальность attachment [q'txCmqnt] n. – приспособление handle ['hxndl] n. – транспортировать
bucket ['bAkIt] n. – ковш hook [huk] n. – крюк grapple ['grxpl] n. – захват
Answer the following questions:
1.What are cranes used for?
2.Where were the first cranes invented?
3.How are modern cranes usually powered?
4.What are the main characteristics of a crane?
5.What crane mechanisms do you know?
6.What types of cranes are there?
7.What are different attachments and devices used for?
8.What attachments are there?
9.Why are cranes one of the most important construction equipment?
НТТС (III семестр)
EXCAVATORS
An excavator is an earth-digging machine designed for making trenches and pits, as well as for carrying out other kinds of earthwork involved in construction. A single bucket excavator is an intermittent action machine. Its working cycle consists of the following operations:
31
cutting some amount of earth from a solid mass, carrying the dug soil to a dumping place, emptying the bucket and returning to the initial position.
The fundamental mechanism of an excavator consists of the undercarriage which includes the tracks or wheels, the frame and the final drive. The final drive has a hydraulic motor and gears that provide drive to the tracks. The operator‟s cabin, engine, counterweights, hydraulic and fuel tanks are attached to the undercarriage to enable the excavator to swing 360 degrees without hindrance.
The workgroup of an excavator includes the boom, dipper or arm, and attachment (for example, bucket, auger or breaker). Mostly the boom can move only up and down, or in addition also shift towards the left and the right of the machine. An arm is attached to the boom end that imparts the force for digging into the ground. A bucket is fixed at the arm end for carrying the soil. In addition to the buckets, there are numerous other categories of different attachments and devices that are used for boring, crushing, lifting and ripping. This expands hydraulic excavator capabilities far beyond excavation tasks with buckets.
Vocabulary:
earth-digging ['WT'dIgIN] a. – землеройный
design [dI'zQIn] v.– проектировать, конструировать intermittent ["Intq'mItqnt] a. – периодический undercarriage ['Andq"kxrIG] n.– ходовая часть, шасси tracks [trxks] n. – гусеницы
frame [freIm] n. – рама
final drive ['fQInl 'drQIv] – главная передача
gear [gIq] n.– шестерня, зубчатая передача; передаточный механизм,
привод
engine ['enGIn] n. – двигатель
counterweight ['kQuntq"weIt]] n. – противовес fuel tank ['fjuql 'txNk] – топливный бак swing [swIN] n. v.– поворот; поворачивать boom [bHm] n. – стрела
dipper ['dIpq] n. – ковш auger ['Lgq] n. – бур, сверло
breaker ['breIkq] n. – дробилка
32
boring ['bLrIN] n. – бурение, сверление
crushing ['krASIN] n.– раздавливание, дробление ripping ['rIpIN] n. – рыхление
Answer the following questions:
1.What are the main functions of an excavator?
2.What does the working cycle of an excavator consist of?
3.What does the undercarriage include?
4.What parts of an excavator do you know?
5.What mechanisms does the working group consist of?
6.How can the boom move?
7.How can an excavator be converted?
8.What expands hydraulic excavator capabilities?
НТТС (IV семестр)
POWER INSTALLATIONS OF CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY
A power installation is a complex consisting of an engine and its servicing systems. It converts some kind of energy into mechanical work. Engines are machines which change heat into motion. Depending on the type of engine, power installations employed in presentday construction machinery, in tractors and trucks can be subdivided into the following groups: steam, internalcombustion, electric, pneumatic and hydraulic ones.
Steam engines and internalcombustion engines are prime movers. They transform energy taken from fuel into mechanical work. Electric, pneumatic and hydraulic engines are known as secondary movers. They convert into mechanical work the energy produced by generators.
Internal combustion engines are the principal power installations employed in mobile and self propelled construction machinery as well as in trucks and tractors. They are very efficient under all working conditions and do not depend on the external sources of energy.
Electric power installations incorporate generators transforming mechanical energy into electrical one. The latter is then used to drive electric motors.
33
The widespread use of electric drives in road making and construction machines is due to their considerable economical and operational advantages as compared to other types of drives.
Pneumatic and hydraulic power installations are employed for machine control systems, auxiliary devices and mechanical tools.
Vocabulary:
power installation ['pQuq "Instq'leISqn] – силовая установка engine ['enGIn] n.– двигатель
servicе ['sWvIs] v.– обслуживать convert [kqn'vWt] v.– превращать machine [mq'SJn] n.– машина, механизм heat [hJt] n.– теплота
steam [stJm] n.– пар
internalcombustion [In't´nl kqm'bAsCqn] – внутреннее сгорание pneumatic [njH'mxtIk] a.– пневматический
hydraulic [hQI'drLlIk] a. –гидравлический source [s² s] n.– источник
generator ['GenqreItq] n.– генератор, источник энергии auxiliary [Lg'zIljqrI] a. – вспомогательный
Answer the following questions:
1.What is a power installation?
2.What is the main function of a power installation?
3.What groups of power installations are there?
4.Why are steam engines and internalcombustion engines called prime movers?
5.How do the secondary movers work?
6.Why are internalcombustion engines the principal power installations in modern construction machinery?
7.What is the widespread use of electric drives in road making and construction machines due to?
8.What are pneumatic and hydraulic power installations employed for?
34
Э, М, ИНН, ПО (II семестр)
PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY
There is a relationship between demand and price. How much demand for a commodity is affected by a change in price is called elasticity of demand. If a small change of price results in a large change in demand, the demand is called elastic, if the demand changes only a little, it is called inelastic. The price elasticity of demand coefficient is negative as demand usually falls with a rise in price.
The price elasticity of supply shows the percentage change in the quantity supplied resulting from a one-percent change in price.
As an increase in the quantity supplied is normally a result of a rise in price, the coefficient is usually positive. We have a "0" (zero) elasticity when a price change results in no quantity supplied change. This is called a perfectly inelastic supply. Provided the elasticities vary between zero and one, the supply is called inelastic. With coefficients greater than one, the supply is called elastic. The percentage change in quantity is larger than the corresponding percentage change in price.
Agricultural supply is mostly inelastic because of the high proportion of such inputs as land, buildings, and machinery. The elasticities of agricultural commodities (potatoes, wheat, fruits, eggs, milk) vary greatly. Because of increasing specialization of production, of farm animal products, in particular, elasticities for such commodities as pigs or broilers have decreased in recent years.
Vocabulary:
agricultural commodity ["xgrI'kAlCqrql kq'mPdItI] – сельскохозяйственный
товар
coefficient ["kqVI'fISqnt] n. – коэффициент decrease [dI'krJs] v. – уменьшать(ся), снижать(ся) elastic [I'lxstIk] a. – эластичный
elasticity ["Jlx'stIsItI] n. – эластичность increase [In'krJs] v. – увеличивать(ся) percentage [pq'sentIG] n. – процент quantity ['kwPntItI] n. – количество
relationship [rI'leISqnSIp] n. – отношение, взаимоотношение, связь specialization ["speSqlaI'zeISqn] n. – специализация
35
vary ['veqrI] v. – меняться, изменяться, варьироваться wheat [wJt] n. – пшеница
Answer the following questions:
1.Which demand is called elastic?
2.What units is elasticity of supply shown in?
3.Why is the price elasticity of demand coefficient negative and the corresponding coefficient for supply positive?
4.What supply is called inelastic?
5.What is the difference between the inelastic and the perfectly inelastic supply?
6.Why is agricultural supply usually inelastic?
7.What is the tendency of agricultural supply development?
Э, М, ИНН, ПО (III семестр)
FISCAL POLICY
Fiscal policy is an instrument of demand management which is used to influence the level of economic activity in an economy through the control of taxation and government expenditure.
The government can use a number of taxation measures to control aggregate demand or spending: direct taxes on individuals (income tax) and companies (corporation tax) can be increased if spending has to be reduced. Spending can also be reduced by increasing indirect taxes: an increase in the VAT on all products or excise duties on particular products will result in lower purchasing power.
The government can change its own expenditure to affect spending levels as well: a cut in purchases of products or capital investment by the government can reduce total spending in the economy.
If the government is to increase spending, it creates a budget deficit, reducing taxation and increasing its expenditure.
A decrease in government spending or an increase in taxes reduces aggregate demand to avoid inflation. By contrast, an increase in government spending and/or decrease in taxes - an injection into the circular flow of national income - stimulates aggregate demand and creates additional jobs to avoid unemployment.
36
In practice, however, the effectiveness of fiscal policy can be reduced by a number of problems. Taxation rate changes, particularly changes in income tax, take time to make. Considerable proportion of government expenditure on, for example, schools, hospitals and defense cannot easily be changed without lengthy political lobbying.
Vocabulary:
aggregate demand ['xgrIgIt dI'mRnd] – совокупный спрос avoid [q'vOId] v. – избегать
budget deficit ['bAGIt 'defIsIt] – бюджетный дефицит corporation tax ["k² pq'reISqn txks] – корпоративный налог create [krI'eIt] v. – создавать
expenditure [Ik'spendICq] n. – расходы
fiscal policy ['fIskql 'pPlIsI] – налоговая политика influence ['InflVqns] v. –оказывать влияние injection [In'GekSqn] n. – вливание
lengthy ['leNTI] a. – длительный, продолжительный measure ['meZq] n. – мера, система мер
purchasing power ['p´CIsIN 'paVq] – покупательная способность
Answer the following questions:
1.What is the effect of reduced aggregate demand in an economy?
2.How can aggregate demand be reduced?
3.What is the effect of higher aggregate demand?
4.How can aggregate demand be increased?
5.What can decrease the effectiveness of fiscal policy?
Э, М, ИНН, ПО (IV семестр)
FOREIGN TRADE
Foreign trade is an essential part of a nation's economy but governmental restrictions are sometimes necessary to protect national interests. Govern-ment actions may occur in response to the trade policies of other countries or in order to protect specific depressed industries.
One method of limiting imports is simply to close the channels of entry into a country. Usually maximum allowable import quantities known
37
as quotas may be set for specific products. Quotas serve as the quickest means of stopping or even reversing a negative trend in a country's balance of payments as well as of protecting domestic industry from foreign competition.
Another common way of restricting imports is by imposing tariffs or taxes on imported goods. A tariff paid by the buyer of the imported product makes the price higher for that good in the importing country. The higher price reduces consumer demand, effectively restricting the import. The taxes collected on the imported goods also increase revenues for the nation's government. Tariffs also serve as a subsidy to domestic producers of the goods taxed.
In recent years the use of non-tariff barriers to trade has increased. It may result in some administrative regulations that discriminate against foreign goods and in favour of domestic ones. Direct government support of depressed domestic industries is considered as a non-tariff barrier to trade, as such support puts the aided industries at an unfair advantage among trading nations.
Vocabulary:
administrative regulation [qd'mInIstrqtIv "regjV'leISqn] – административное
регулирование
barrier ['bxrIq] n. – препятствие, преграда
depressed industry [dI'prest 'IndqstrI] – отрасль промышленности,
переживающая спад (кризис) discriminate [dI'skrImIneIt] v. – ущемлять
domestic industry [dq'mestIk 'IndqstrI] – отечественная промышленность essential [I'senSql] a. – обязательный, существенный, необходимый quota ['kwqutq] n.- квота, лимит
restriction [rI'strIkSqn] n. – ограничение revenue ['revInjH] n. – доход
specific [spI'sIfIk] a. – определенный, конкретный subsidy ['sAbsIdI] n. – субсидирование
tariff ['txrIf] n. – тариф, расценка
Answer the following questions:
38
1.Why are governmental restrictions of foreign trade sometimes necessary?
2.What do quotas provide?
3.How do tariffs or taxes on imported goods work?
4.What is considered as a non-tariff barrier to trade?
5.How does it work?
39
ТЭ, ЭЭ, ТСБ, ПВ (II семестр)
HEAT EXCHANGERS
The construction of most heat exchangers falls into one of two categories: shell and tube or plate. Each type has its advantages and disadvantages. The most basic and the most common type of heat exchanger construction is shell and tube heat exchanger (Figure 1.). This type of heat exchanger consists of a set of tubes in a container called a shell. The fluid flowing inside the tubes is called the tube side fluid and the fluid flowing on the outside of the tubes is the shell side fluid. At the ends of the tubes, the tube side fluid is separated from the shell side fluid by the tube sheet(s). The tubes are rolled and press-fitted or welded into the tube sheet to provide a leak tight seal.
Plate type heat exchanger (Figure 2.) consists of plates instead of tubes to separate the hot and cold fluids. The hot and cold fluids alternate between each of the plates. Baffles direct the flow of fluid between plates. Because each of the plates has a very large surface area, the plates provide each of the fluids with an extremely large heat transfer area. Therefore a plate type heat exchanger is capable of transferring much more heat. This is due to the larger area the plates provide over tubes. Due to the high heat transfer efficiency of the plates, plate type heat exchangers are usually very small. Because of this problem, plate type heat exchangers have only been used in small, low pressure applications such as on oil coolers for engines. However, new improvements in gasket design and overall heat exchanger design have allowed some large scale applications of the plate type heat exchanger. As older facilities are upgraded or newly designed facilities are built, large plate type heat exchangers are replacing tube and shell heat exchangers and becoming more common.
40