5. Темы для самостоятельных работ, сообщений и проектов

1. Религиозные учреждения.

2. Мемориальные сооружения.

3. Мегалитические сооружения.

4. Здания.

5. Из истории архитектуры.

6. Архитектурный дизайн и современные цифровые технологии.

7. Знаменитые архитекторы.

6. Рекомендации по подготовке к пересказу научно-популярных

текстов							И
1.		Прочитать и перевести текст.
2.		Выделить главную мысль текста.
3.		Выписать ключевые слова.				Д
4.		Подобрать определения для конкретных понятий.
5.					А
		Пользуясь схемой, пересказать текст.
6.		Самостоятельно дополнить полученный текст известными вам
сведениями.				б
7.		Используя полученный материал, подготовить пересказ нового,
			и
более полного по информац текста.
7.		С
	План развёртыван я темы в письменном сообщении
1.	Вступление.
2.	Дефиниция.
3.	Характерные черты сооружения.
4.	Примеры.
5.	Заключение.

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§ 1. ARCHITECTURE

Architecture [1] (Latin architectura "builder, carpenter, mason") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.

Architecture has to do with planning, designing and constructing form, space and ambience to reflect functional, technical, social, environmental and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and coordination of materials and technology, and of light and shadow. Often,

conflicting requirements must be resolved. The practise of Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizingИbuildings and structures,

including scheduling, cost estimation and construction administration.

Documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical specifications, defines the structureДand/or behaviour of a building or other kind of system that is to be or has been constructed.

through oral traditions and practices,Аbuilding became a craft, and "architecture" is the nameиgiven to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft.

Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter,

security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developedбand knowledge began to be formalized

It is widely Сassumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day. Early human settlements were mostly rural.

Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley Civilization in modern-day Pakistan, the Pyramids at Giza in Egypt (pic.1).

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Pic. 1. Mastabas in the Giza Necropolis with the Pyramid of Khafre in the background

1.1. Ancient architectureДИ

In many ancient civilizations, suchАas those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine

and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolicallyбthe political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state itself.

The architecture andиurbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones andСnew building types emerged. Architectural "style" developed in the form of the Classical orders.

Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time. These texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman military engineer Vitruvius. Some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious as Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, Japan (pic.2) [5]. Ancient Egyptian houses were made out of mud collected from the Nile river. It was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in construction.

Many Egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near the cultivated area of the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the millennia, or the mud bricks of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer. Others are inaccessible, new buildings having been erected on ancient ones. Fortunately, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the

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village Deir al-Madinah, the Middle Kingdom town at Kahun, and the fortresses at Buhen and Mirgissa. Also, many temples and tombs have survived because they were built on high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were constructed of stone.

				И
			Д
		А
	б
Pic. 2. Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, Japan
и
С	1.2. Asian architecture

Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries BCE; the Vaastu Shastra of ancient India and Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka.

The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe; Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many Asian countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.

Bronze Age

Before Greek poetry, the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age, at the beginning of which syllabic writing was lost and alphabetic writing had not begun. Prior to then in the Bronze Age the records of the Assyrian Empire, the Hittite Empire and the various Mycenaean states of Greece mention a region undoubtedly Asia, certainly in Anatolia, including if not

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identical to Lydia. These records are administrative and do not include poetry.

The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BC by unknown agents although one school of thought assigns the Dorian invasion to this time. The burning of the palaces baked clay diurnal administrative records written in a Greek syllabic script called Linear B, deciphered by a number of interested parties, most notably by a young World War II cryptographer, Michael Ventris, subsequently assisted by the scholar, John Chadwick. A major cache discovered by Carl Blegen at the site of ancient Pylos included hundreds of male and female names formed by different methods.

Some of these are of women held in servitude (as study of the society implied by the content reveals). They were used in trades, such as clothmaking, and usually came with children. The epithet, lawiaiai, "captives,"

associated with some of them identifies their origin. Some are ethnic names. One in particular, aswiai, identifies "women ofИAsia." Perhaps they were

captured in Asia, but some others, Milatiai, appear to have been of Miletus, a Greek colony, which would not have beenДraided for slaves by Greeks.

Chadwick suggests that the names record the locations where these foreign

women were purchased. The name is also in the singular, Aswia, which

This name, Assuwa, has been suggestedАas the origin for the name of the continent "Asia". The Assuwaиleague was a confederation of states in western Anatolia, defeated by the Hittites under Tudhaliya I around 1400 BC.

refers both to the name of a country and to a female of it. There is a

masculine form, aswios. This Aswia appears to have been a remnant of a region known to the Hittites asбAssuwa, centered on Lydia, or "Roman Asia."

Alternatively,Сthe etymology of the term may be from the Akkadian

word (w)aṣû(m), which means 'to go outside' or 'to ascend', referring to the direction of the sun at sunrise in the Middle East and also likely connected with the Phoenician word asa meaning east. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for Europe, as being from Akkadian erēbu(m) 'to enter' or 'set' (of the sun).

T.R. Reid supports this alternative etymology, noting that the ancient Greek name must have derived from asu, meaning 'east' in Assyrian (ereb for Europe meaning 'west'). The ideas of Occidental (form Latin Occidens 'setting') and Oriental (from Latin Oriens for 'rising') are also European invention, synonymous with Western and Eastern. Reid further emphasizes that it explains the Western point of view of placing all the peoples and cultures of Asia into a single classification, almost as if there were a need for setting the distinction between Western and Eastern civilizations on the Eurasian continent. Ogura Kazuo and Tenshin Okakura are two outspoken Japanese figures on the subject.

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Pic. 3. Statue representing Asia at Palazzo Ferreria, in Valletta, Malta
Classical antiquity	И
Latin Asia and Greek Ἀσία appear to be the same word. Roman authors
translated Ἀσία as Asia. The Romans namedДa province Asia, which roughly

corresponds with modern-dayбcentralА-western Turkey. There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Majorиlocated in modern-day Iraq. As the earliest evidence of the name is Greek, it is likely circumstantially that Asia came

from Ἀσία, but ancientСtransitions, due to the lack of literary contexts, are difficult to catch in the act. The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians, such as Herodotus, who were all Greek. Ancient Greek certainly evidences early and rich uses of the name.

The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus (about 440 BC), not because he innovated it, but because his Histories are the earliest surviving prose to describe it in any detail. He defines it carefully, mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read, but whose works are now missing. By it he means Anatolia and the Persian Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt. Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names were "given to a tract which is in reality one" (Europa, Asia, and Libya, referring to Africa), stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of Prometheus (i.e. Hesione), but that the Lydians say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at Sardis. In Greek mythology, "Asia" (Ἀσία) or "Asie" (Ἀσίη) was the name of a "Nymph or Titan goddess of Lydia" (рic. 3).

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