Module 3. Communicating Results

Unit 1. Scientific Writing

 АСКt ПТrst МШЦОs tШ ЦТЧН аСОЧ вШu СОКr tСО аШrНs “аrТtО”, “аrТtТЧР”?

 Are you an experienced writer/author?

 Have you got any works published?

 Can you associate the pictures (pic. 1, a d) with any types of scientific literature?

a	b

c

d

Pic. 1

97

Listen to the speaker and practise pronunciation of the following words:

primary	concise
tertiary	title
journal	author
referee	affiliation
manuscript	introduction
monograph	summary
encyclopedia	summarize
proceedings	nomenclature
immediacy	acknowledgement
cite	reference
citation	source
quote	plagiarize
quotation	plagiarism
accuracy	plagiarist
logic	copy
cohesion	copying
coherence	paraphrase

A. In your group share ideas about the meaning of the following phrases, give some examples. Check your ideas on scanning text A.

“primarв scientific literature”

“secondarв scientific literature” “tertiarв scientific literature” “greв scientific literature”

B. Build a classification hierarchy on reading text A (a flow chart). Compare your flow chart with those of your groupmates.

Different types of scientific literature exist, normally referred to as the primary, secondary, tertiary and grey literature.

98

The primary literature refers to accounts of research carried out per-

sonally by an individual scientist and published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. These accounts are commonly МКХХОН “pКpОrs”. There are dif-

ferent types of journals that range from international to regional to local and there are also systems that grade the importance of journals on the basis of how often papers carried by the journal are cited in other scientific papers (called the “ТЦpКМt ПКМtШr”). Most primary literature is published in scholarly journals, but some research is published as monographs, theses or dissertations, conference papers and reports.

The secondary literature consists of publications that rely on primary sources for information. Here it is not a requirement for the authors to have done the work themselves, since the purpose of the publication is to summarize and synthesize knowledge in a specific area for other scientists who already have an understanding of the topic. The secondary literature includes review journals, monographic books and textbooks, handbooks and manuals. Although normally written in a scientific style, secondary publications are not organized in the same way that primary publications are.

The tertiary literature consists of published works that are based on primary or secondary sources and that are aimed at scientists who work in different areas from the subject matter of the publication, or towards an interested but lay audience. Such publications are normally written in a popular rather than a scientific style and while such publications may include a short bibliography, they do not usually include references to the primary literature. Examples of the tertiary literature include science magazines, newsletters, science articles in newspapers, introductory textbooks and encyclopedias.

The grey literature refers to sources of scientific information that are not published and distributed in the usual manner and which therefore may be difficult to obtain. Grey literature includes theses and dissertations, technical reports with a limited distribution, journals published by special interest groups that have a limited distribution, abstracts of conference papers and conference proceedings that are only made available to conference participants, some types of Government documents, working papers, and some types of online documents. “GrОв” rОПОrs tШ the limited distribution and difficulty of accessing the publication.

99

C. Attribute the given below forms of publication to the types of scientific literature (primary, secondary or tertiary).

1.An encyclopedia.

2.A monograph that presents new ideas as a result of scientific research tСКt СКs ЛООЧ rОЯТОаОН Лв К ЧuЦЛОr ШП rОПОrООs (usuКХХв МКХХОН ‘rОКНОrs’ ТЧ

the case of a book).

3. A science magazine article.

4. A science magazine article, written by a Nobel laureate.

5. Conference proceedings, peer-reviewed and published, either as a book of conference proceedings, or as a special issue of a scientific journal.

6. Abstracts of papers presented at a conference, or the papers themselves which have not been peer-reviewed.

7. A patent.

8. A review.

9. Engineering drawings.

A. In pairs arrange the pictures (pic. 2, a e) in the correct order to represent the peer review process. Can you describe these steps?

Pic. 2

B. Check your answers (task 1.3 A) on reading the passage below.

Scientific papers are submitted to the journal editor who then asks a number of recognized experts (referees) in the area of study addressed by the paper to give an opinion on whether the work presents new scientific

100

information, and to report on the merits and deficiencies of the work. Peer

reviewers read the article and provide feedback to the editor. On the basis ШП tСО rОПОrООs’ rОpШrts, tСО ОНТtШr ЦКв КМcept the paper as it was submit-

ted, or may require minor revision from the authors, or may require major revision, or the paper may be refused outright. If the article finally meets

editorial and peer standards it is published in the journal. This formal reviewing process Тs ФЧШаЧ Кs “pООr rОЯТОа”.

C. Give examples of peer-reviewed journals. Have you got papers published in peer-reviewed journals? Can you share your experience in publishing these works?

A. Summarize the following paragraph in one sentence.

Scientific information available on the Internet ranges from absolute rubbish to high quality. There are very authoritative looking sites that present completely wrong information, sometimes deliberately, whereas at the other end of the spectrum, there are primary peer-reviewed scientific journals that are published online (normally, but not always, with at least a limited print edition as well). Professional looking websites are no guarantee of quality information. It is sometimes very difficult to evaluate the quality of data contained in non-professional sources, such as some Open Access journals. The situation described above basically means that the concept of Semantic Web, promising the coordinated global network of information, failed to materialize.

B. EvКluКtО tСО “sМiОntiПiМ quКlitв” oП inПormКtion Пrom tСО Пollowing books.

1. Robertson ben Abraham, Kent. New Gravity. Bozo Faust, Project 2, 1975.

You will learn ПrШЦ tСТs sЦКХХ pКpОrЛКМФ tСКt “Gravity is the 4th dimension, Electricity is the 5th dimension, and Magnetism is the 6th dimension”.

2. Vizas, C. B. Cosmic Cyclones. A New, Revolutionary Picture of the Universe. Greenwich Book Publishers, 1956.

It is another revival of the ether theory with ether wind and vortices. 3. Barnes, Thomas G. Physics of the Future, a Classical Unification of Physics. Institute for Creation Research, 1983.

Barnes claims to expose problems with Einstein's relativity and with quantum mechanics, and proposes a program of research to correct them.

101

4. Seiss, Joseph A. The Great Pyramid. Steiner reprint, 1973.

The author argues that the Egyptian builders of the Giza pyramids encoded in their architecture coded history of the world, past and future, as well as scientific constants.

	http://www.lhup.edu/
	C. In pairs suggest ideas to answer the question: how can a re-
	searcher cope with the task of getting reliable information from
	the Internet? Then discuss your ideas with your groupmates.
	A. Study the given below questions which help to evaluate the
	web sources. Write down your own questions to help your
	groupmates when choosing reliable Internet resources for their
	research.
	Who is the audience?
	How complete and accurate are the information and the links provided?
	Does the site claim to represent a group, an organization, an institution,
	a corporation or a governmental body?
	Does the site offer a selected list of resources in a particular discipline

or field or does it claim to offer a complete list?

Does the site claim to describe or provide the results of research or

scholarly effort?

Are sufficient references provided to other works, to document hypoth-

eses, claims or assertions?

Are references cited fully?

Can the results be refuted or verified through other means, e.g., by use

of library-related research tools?

Is advertising included at the site, and if so, has it had an impact on the

content?

Can the researchers, scholars, groups, organizations, institutions, corporations or governmental bodies listed as authors, sponsors or support-

ers, be verified as such, and what are their qualifications?

Is any sort of bias evident?

Do the documents follow good graphic design principles?

Do the authors explain their research methods as well as results?

B.Can you associate the picture below with any actual problems of researchers concerning their work on the Web?

102

A. Fill in the gaps in the table below to show some ways of using the Internet by researchers. What do you think about these resources? What is your own experience in this regard?

Tools		Purpose
1. Search engines, web directories, subject specif-		…
ic collections (advanced web search).
2. Computer-based tasks, questionnaires.		…
3. On-line tutorials, Statistical Data	Analysis	…
sites, on-line Statistical Calculators.
4. A web site, preprint repositories, publishing		…
platforms.

B. Practise searching the Internet, use the resources below. Enter the key words from papers relevant to your topic. Try snowball searching (start with a key document and use its references or citations to other resources). Answer the questions below.

http://scholar.google.co.id/

http://www.sciencedirect.com/

http://elibrary.ru/

http://www.uspto.gov/

http://worldwide.espacenet.com

103

Did you find many papers?

Did you download abstracts or full text documents? What information about these papers did you get?

Do you think these are valuable resources for you? Why?

Could you recommend any other resources for your groupmates?

A. In pairs make lists of criteria for researchers to choose a journal for publication. Compare your lists and make a conclusion on the best three criteria.

B. Tell what you know about the journal metrics in the box. Compare your ideas with the information from text B.

Impact factor

Immediacy index

H-index

The impact factor measures how often articles in a specific journal have been cited. The impact factor is frequently used as a proxy variable to indicate the relative importance of a journal within its field: journals with higher impact factors are thought to be more important than those with lower ones. The impact factor is calculated by dividing the number of citations by the total number of articles published in the two (or five) previous years.

The immediacy index is a measure of how topical and urgent work published in a scientific journal is. It is the average number of times an article is cited in the year it is published. The journal immediacy index indicates how quickly articles in a journal are cited. The immediacy index is calculated by dividing the number of citations to articles published in a given year by the number of articles published in that year. The aggregate immediacy index indicates how quickly articles in a subject category are cited.

The impact factor and immediacy index are calculated each year by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) for those journals which it indexes and are published annually in the Journal Citation Reports. This sort of information can be accessed via the e-Library.

The h-index was introduced to measure the productivity of an individual, group or institution. It can be applied to the productivity of a scholarly journal. The h-index is calculated by taking into account the balance

104

between the number of publications and the number of citations per publication. The h-index of a publication is the largest number h such that at least h articles in that publication were cited at least h times each. For example, an h-index of 3 tells us that an author has 3 publications which received 3 citations or more. To determine the h-index such databases as Scopus and the Web of Knowledge provide automated calculators.

C. Give your groupmates recommendations on choosing journals for their publications. Take into account the journal evaluation measures/metrics (see tables 3.1 3.3).

Table 3.1. Journals Ranked by Impact

Rank	Economics	Energy and Fuels	Construction
1	Journal of Economic	Prog. Energ. Combust.	Cement	&	Concrete
	Literature		Research
	(6.92)	(5.27)		(3.75)
2	Quarterly Journal of	Renew. Sust. Energ.	Cement	&	Concrete
	Economics	Rev.	Composites
	(5.65)	(3.77)		(3.36)
3	Journal of Financial	Fuel Cells	Construction & Build.
	Economics		Materials
	(4.02)	(3.27)		(2.82)
4	Econometrica	Bioresource Technol.	Energy & Buildings
	(4.00)	(3.10)		(3.25)
5	Journal of Economic	J. Power Sources	Automation in Con-
	Geography		struction
	(3.94)	(2.81)		(2.04)

Table 3.2. Journals Ranked by Impact & Immediacy Index

105

Table 3.3. Russian Journals Ranked by Impact (e-Library)

Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii	0.437
Nauk)
Automation in Industry	0.098
Automation and modern technologies	0.135
Voprosy Economiki	3.831
Russian Economics Journal	1.198
Avtomobilnaya Promyshlennost	0.081
Avtometriya	0.472
Mashinostroenie i inzhenernoe obrazovanie	0.167
Mashinostroenie	0.079

A. Brainstorming: what is scientific writing?

B. In pairs discuss the following questions. Compare your ideas with those of your groupmates.

Are writing skills important for a scientist? Why?

What is “good” scientific аriting?

C. Complete the following ideas. Use the words from the box.

writing, scientific, science, technical, general, peers, communication

1.Writing is the most common form of (a) _ _.

2.Scientific writing is (b) _ _ by a scientist, with the audience of (c) _.

3.Science writing is (d) _ _ _ for the popular media with the audience much more (e) _.

4.(f) _ _ is published in Scientific American or National Geographic.

5.Journals like Nature and Science publish (g) _ _.

106

Below you can see examples of scientific writing. Evaluate the quКlitв oП аritinР Кs “РooН” or “poor”. AММount Пor вour opinion.

Sample 1

In this laboratory, we varied sampling rates, analog filters, and digital filters and looked at how these variables affected the QRS peaks. Finally, we wrote four different algorithms in MATLAB for detecting the QRS peaks, and we compared their resilience to different types of noise.

Sample 2

The information and skills I learned in this lab will certainly come in handy later in the course. Now, I know how to process biological signals, and how to read a PSD for further information on the signal.

Sample 3

As discussed, the second reaction is really the end result of a very large number of reactions. It is also worth emphasizing that the reactions do not represent a closed system, as r appears to be produced out of thin air. In reality, it is created from other chemical species within the cell, but we have chosen here not to model at such a fine level of detail. One detail not included here that may be worth considering is the reversible nature of the binding of RNAP to the promoter region. It is also worth noting that these two reactions form a simple linear chain, whereby the product of the first reaction is the reactant for the second.

Sample 4

As discussed, the second reaction is really the result of many reactions. The reactions do not represent a closed system, as r appears to be produced out of thin air. In reality, it is created from other chemical species within the cell, but we have chosen not to model at such a fine level of detail. One detail not included is the reversibility of the binding of RNAP to the promoter. These two reactions form a simple linear chain, whereby the product of the first reaction is the reactant for the second.

107

Study the document standards in the table. Evaluate the scientific writing in the samples (1 2) regarding these standards.

Purpose	The purpose of the manuscript must be obvious
	and unambiguous.
Conformity	Text has to conform to given formats, e.g., jour-
	nal, book, etc.
Accuracy	The wording must be grammatically correct, con-
	cise, accurate and precise.
Consistency	Terminology should be consistent and appropri-
	ate.
Logic and flow	TСО ЦКЧusМrТpts sСШuХН ЛО К “stШrв” аТtС К МХОКr
	message based on a logical train of thought.
Context	TСО “stШrв” Цust ЛО prОsОЧtОН ТЧ tСО МШЧtОбt ШП
	established literature or other reported work, and
	must be congruent with accepted institutional or reg-
	ulatory values.
Structure	A logical structure (i.e. headings, subheadings,
	paragraphs, figures, tables) should be chosen.
Data presentation	High-quality data should be presented clearly, us-
	ing tables and figures as appropriate.

Sample 1

(Introduction section of a Lab Report)

Electrocardiograms (EKGs) are an important tool for diagnosing the

СОКrt. TСОrОПШrО ЛОТЧР КЛХО tШ tКФО sШЦОШЧО’s EKG КЧН ФЧШаТЧР Сow to clean up the image as best a s possible is a very significant skill. Being able

to filter out unwanted frequencies was related to the main purpose of this

ХКЛ, аСТМС аКs tШ ХОКrЧ СШа tШ tКФО, rОМШrН, КЧН ПТХtОr К suЛУОМt’s СОКrt rКtО via EKG. LearninР СШа tШ ПТХtОr К suЛУОМt’s EKG ОЧtКТХОН ХОКrЧТЧР СШа tШ

create digital filters on MATLAB and how to differentiate the frequencies related to the heart and unwanted frequencies. We are also learned how aliasing can affect our signal and how to deal with aliasing via sample rate.

Sample 2

(Introduction section of a Lab Report)

The electrocardiogram (ECG) is a powerful tool used by clinicians that measures the electrical depolarization of the heart. It is most often used to identify cardiac structure and function. Yet deeper analysis of ECGs can also be used to consider more in depth physiological topics – ranging from heart rate detection, to measuring the electrical axis of the heart.

108

Unfortunately, there are a variety of complications that can make the ECG data less accurate and difficult use in physiological analysis. With optimal settings determined, it is then possible to gather more meaningful biological data. In this report, low pass filter optimization was applied for use in two physiological studies: the effect of exercise and the Valsalva maneuver (exhaling while mouth and nose are closed) on heart rate, and measuring the mean QRS axis of the heart.

A. Below you can see a result of PhD dissertation editing. Study the corrections and make a conclusion on the types of mistakes which occur in scientific writing.

109

B. Compare your conclusions with the following opinion of an expert upon common mistakes in scientific writing.

Here are the most frequent shortcomings of scientific texts resulting

myths and misconceptions:

long and complicated sentences instead of short, clear sentences;

mixing creative and scientific writing;

sМТОЧtТПТМ “stШrв” ЧШt rОКНТХв КppКrОЧt;

poor structuring of text;

mixing actual results and their discussion;

inconsistent use of technical terms and units;

misusing or wasting specific and generic terms;

reluctance to use first-person pronouns and overuse of passive voice; tendency to turn sharp and powerful verbs into weighty nouns.from

A. On reading the passage below differentiate between the following two characteristics of research papers: coherence and cohesion.

Good academic papers have coherence and cohesion. The term coherence refers to content aspects. A paper has coherence if it presents its

arguments in a clear, plausible and comprehensible order. There are no

‘ХШРТМКХ РКps’ ТЧ Тts ХТЧО ШП rОКsШЧТЧР. It КЯШТНs uЧЧОМОssКrв НТРrОssТШЧs.

The term cohesion refers to formal (stylistic) aspects of writing, specifically on the paragraph and sentence level. In good papers there is a tight fit of meaning and form. This is achieved by a skilful use of lexicogrammatical forms that highlight the sense relations binding the paragraphs and sentences in a text (e.g. link words, verbs or commenting adverbs).

B.Study some tips on writing coherent texts.

1.When writing is coherent, it stays on topic in expected units. Readers usually expect thoughts to be expressed in paragraph units. A single paragraph corresponds to a single thought. Each sentence in the paragraph

should support that main point.

2. Typical examples ШП МШСОrОЧМО КrОμ РОЧОrКХ → particular; statement → exampХО; prШЛХОЦ → solution; question → КЧsаОr; МХКТЦ → counter-

claim.

3. Cohesion is achieved when writers connect their organized parts with sufficiently clear signals (like the words finally, thus) to make the development of their cases intelligible and to lead the reader safely along the emerging lines of their arguments.

110

C.Match the linking words and the categories they refer to.

1)contrast and conces- a) therefore, thus, consequently, hence, as a

sion

2)emphasis

3)example or illustration

4)time sequence

5)addition

6)summary

7)cause and effect

8)comparison

result of;

b)also, and, and then, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in fact, in the first place, last, moreover, next, second;

c)also, in the same way, likewise, similarly;

d)and yet, at the same time, even so, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of this, instead, nevertheless, on the other hand, yet;

e)certainly, indeed, in fact;

f)for example, in conclusion, in other words, in short, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus;

g)finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore;

h)eventually, finally, in the first place, in the past, last, moreover, next, second, simultaneously, so far, subsequently, then, thereafter, until now.

Practise your writing skills (providing paragraph coherence).

A. Rearrange the sentences of the paragraph in logical order.

(1)This thesis is the output of doctoral research that aims to explore further this theme by studying the dynamics of strategic response in the situation of a single, predictable, yet discontinuous, environmental change.

(2) The strategy process literature is concerned with the nature of the formation of strategy to environmental change. (3) The field of strategy has grown rapidly in the last twenty years, reflecting increased levels of academic interest in the subject. (4) Numerous research studies have focused on topics as varied as managing strategic change, the structural analysis of industries, or effective strategic planning. (5) However, the view of a single organization as the strategic actor is common. (6) TСО “markets as networks” perspective emphasizes the embeddedness of an actor within a series of exchange relationships with other actors. (7) In this view co-

111

operative relationships are considered as the norm as exchanges and adaptations take place over time. (8) A key theme in the industrial networks field is that of stability-change.

B.Fill in appropriate linking words.

1.… a toy, … a mode of transportation for the rich, the automobile was designed as man's mechanical servant. … it became part of the pattern of living.

2.The historical sciences have made us very conscious of our past. …, some scholars tend to look totally backward in their interpretation of the human future.

3.… there is a vast amount of literature available on the independent fields of VoIP and CRM, there is no direct study on the impact of VoIP on CRM.

4.All the efficient market requires is that a few people have the in-

formation and based on the information of the few people, the entire market will be well informed. … the efficiency of the market is determined purely on the basis of the availability of the information.

5.… the existence of strong evidences to advocate the efficiency of the stock markets there are also theories that have documented long-term anomalies in the stock market which seem to act against the efficient market hypothesis.

6.… the Internet is a level playing field that allows everyone to lev-

erage their strategic marketing endeavors in reaching an extensive, targeted audience, this makes online market to be highly competitive. …, the research question will be derived from this perspective.

Practise your writing skills (providing grammatical and lexical accuracy).

A.Choose between commonly confused words.

1.GХШЛКХ аКrЦТЧР … ЦКЧв НТППОrОЧt ПКМОts ШП ХТПО ШЧ EКrtС. (affect/effect)

2.TСО ЦКТЧ … ШП РХШЛКХ warming is an increasing global average tempera-

ture. (affect/effect)

3. Additionally, we are exposed to … КЦШuЧts ШП sШХКr rКНТКtТШЧ ШЧ К НКТХв basis. (various/varying)

4.This paper outlines a study on NO2 КЛsШrptТШЧ Лв КsШrЛТМ КМТН КЧН … chemicals. (various/varying)

5.Another problem is what will happen to the … КПtОr the experiments. (dependent/dependant)

112

6. IЧ КЧ ОбpОrТЦОЧt tСО … ЯКrТКЛХО Тs tСО ПКМtШr tСКt rОspШЧНs аСОЧ КЧШtСОr

factor is manipulated. (dependent/dependant)

7. We know that a given volumО ШП РКsШХТЧО МШЧtКТЧs … ЦКss КЧН, tСОre-

fore, weighs less than does an equal volume of water. (less/fewer)

8. As a result of these barriers, … ЛuТХНТЧРs КrО Кs ОЧОrРв ОППТМТОЧt Кs tСОв should be. (less/fewer)

B. Translate the values into English (in writing).
200 439 ; 1038 ; 3,2 ; 0, 0157 ; 0,05 ; 2,1	.

. Make corrections in the paragraph from a PhD thesis as if you were an editor. Compare your corrections first, with those of your groupmates, then – with the corrections of an expert (see answer key).

Introduction

Microstructure researches mainly focus on the transaction mechanics in the financial market all the time. In recent years, scholars are mainly concerned about the issues such as liquidity and asymmetric information. Nowadays, people generally accept the concept of the influence of liquidity on the asset-pricing (Amihud and Mendelson (1986); Acharya (2005)), but the sources of the liquidity which influences the asset pricing have always been ambiguous. However, the liquidity of stocks partly originate from the information asymmetry. There are some supports in the side of asset-pricing affected by the information asymmetry. Beaver (1998) divided the information asymmetries into two parts: one is the asymmetric information between investors, the other is between investors and managers of firm.

Read the passage about writing papers for scientific journals and answer the questions following it.

A research paper is a method of communication, an attempt to tell

others about some specific data that you have gathered and what you think those data mean in the МШЧtОбt ШП вШur rОsОКrМС. TСО “rules” of writing a

scientific paper are rigid. For clear communication, the paper obviously requires proper usage of the English language and this will be considered in evaluating your reports. Scientific papers must be written clearly and concisely so that readers with backgrounds similar to yours can understand easily what you have done and how you have done it should they want to repeat or extend your work. Although scientific journals differ somewhat in their specific requirements, a general format for most journals is accepted.

113

What requirements do scientific papers published in journals meet?

Do these requirements differ significantly in various scientific jour-nals? Give examples.

What is the general format for most publications?

A. Look through a couple of scientific papers and describe their structure. What information is included in the following sections? (see the diagram below)

B. What information is presented in the following sections of scientific papers?

114

Scan text C and pick out the most important rules on writing scientific papers. Look through some sample papers to see if they meet these requirements.

A scientific paper is a report about something that has been done in the past. Most of the paper should be written in the past tense. The present tense is used when stating generalizations or conclusions. The present tense is most often used in the Introduction, Discussion and Conclusion sections of papers. The paper should read as a narrative in which the author describes what was done and what results were obtained from that work.

Every scientific paper must have a self-explanatory title. By reading the title, the work being reported should be clear to the reader without having to read the paper itself.

Abstract. The abstract section in a scientific paper is a concise digest of the content of the paper. An abstract is more than a summary. A summary is a brief restatement of preceding text that is intended to orient a reader who has studied the preceding text. The abstract should present, in about 250 words, the purpose of the paper, general materials and methods, summarized results, and the major conclusions.

Introduction. This section is the statement of the problem that you investigated. It should give readers enough information to appreciate your specific objectives within a larger theoretical framework. This section may also include background information about the problem. All background information must be appropriately cited. Do not make the introduction too broad. Present only the most relevant ideas and get quickly to the point of the paper.

Materials and methods. This section explains how and, where relevant, when the experiment was done. The researcher describes the experimental design, the apparatus, methods of gathering data and type of control. This section should be detailed and clear enough so that any reader knowledgeable in basic scientific techniques could duplicate the study.

Results. In this section the researcher presents summarized data for inspection using narrative text and, where appropriate, tables and figures to display summarized data. The text describes the data presented in the tables and figures and calls attention to the important data that the researcher will discuss in the Discussion section and will use to support Conclusions.

Discussion. In this section the researcher interprets the data in terms of any patterns that were observed, any relationships among experimental variables that are important and any correlations between variables that are discernible. The author should include any explanations of how the results differed from those hypothesized, or how the results were either different

115

from or similar to those of any related experiments performed by other researchers. “NegatiЯО” results also need to be explained.

Conclusions. The section states what the researcher thinks the data mean, and should relate directly back to the problem/question stated in the introduction. At the end of the section the author should consider perspectives, i.e. an idea of what could or should still be done in relation to the issue addressed in the paper.

Acknowledgements. In this section you should give credit to people who have helped you with the research or with writing the paper. If your work has been supported by a grant, you would also give credit for that in this section.

Literature cited. This section lists, in alphabetical order by author, all published information that was referred to anywhere in the text of the paper. It provides the readers with the information needed should they want to refer to the original literature on the general problem. Most references should be to the primary literature. The system of citing reference material in scientific journals varies with the particular journal.

Practise your reading skills: check if you understand information from author affiliation and editorial footnote section.

a)

1.C. Newberry, H,S. Dresser, J.W. Byerly and W.T. Riba, Rockwell International, Downey, CA.

2.S.K. Lee and T.J. Chung, Univ. of Alabama, Huntsville, AL.

3.C. Norden, AFWAL/POTA, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH.

4.D, Thorp, Garrett Turbine Engine Co., Phoenix, AZ.

5.G. Savela, Pratt & Whitney, West Palm Beach, FL.

6.M.C. Lindell and W.A. Stainaker, NASA Langlcy Research Center, Hampton, VA.

7.J.R. Rollins, R.K. Grove and D.R. Wallig, Lockheed Missile & Space Co., Sunnyvale, CA.

b)

Willy Albanes

Computer Sciences Corp., Huntsville., Ala.

Received Aug. 12, 1985; revision received Nov 19, 1985. This paper is declared a work of the U.S. Government and therefore is in the public domain.

Principal Engineer, Defence'Systems Division; currently with the U.S. Army Missile Command, Army Missile Laboratory.

116

Choose the best sections of scientific papers. Account for your opinion.

A. Title

Sample 1	Sample 2
Engineering Faculty	Engineering Faculty
Monash University	Monash University
ALTERNATIVE DESIGNS OF	TWO ALTERNATIVE
THE FUEL CELL CAR	CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS

B. References

Sample 1

Reference list:

Electric and hybrid electric vehicles and fuel cell technology, Warrndale PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1999.

http://www.sae.org/fuelcells/fuelcells.htm

Jay Pukrushpan, Stefanopoulou, A.G., Peng Huei. (2004) Control of fuel cell power systems: principles, modeling, analysis and feedback design, Call number at Hargrave-Andrew Library: 621.312429 P979C2004

Sample 2

References

Pedler, M, Burgoyne J & Boydell, T 2004, A manager's guide to leadership, McGraw-Hill Professional, UK.

Thompson, G 2000 'Where do multinationals conduct their business activity and what are the consequences for national systems?', John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, pp. 191 212.

White, AL 2005, New wine, new bottles: the rise of non-financial reporting, Business for Social Responsibility, viewed 23 August 2007, <http://www.bsr.org/Meta/200506_BSR_Allen-White_Essay.pdf>.

A. In pairs define the words from the box. Give examples to reveal their meaning. Share your ideas with your group.

to plagiarize plagiarism

117

B. Choose the picture (pic. 3, a, b, c) which represents plagiarism in the best way. Account for your opinion.

a

b

c

Pic. 3

A. Compare your definition of plagiarism with the information from text D.

Plagiarism is the process of taking another person's work, ideas, or words, and using them as if they were your own. Someone who does this is called a plagiarist. The Merriam-Webster On-line Dictionary defines theverb “to plagiarize” in these ways:

to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own;to use (another's production) without crediting the source;

to commit literary theft;

to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source.

118

Examples of academic plagiarism include: copying or paraphrasing information from a source without proper acknowledgement or any acknowledgement at all; failing to give a citation to the source of infor-

mation obtained from print, electronic or other media; copying another pОrsШЧ’s ОssКвs, КssТРЧЦОЧts, ХКЛШrКtШrв rОpШrts, НТssОrtКtТШЧ ОtМ. without

that persШЧ’s knowledge; and commissioning another person to do your work for you.

Plagiarism can also refer to copying images, graphs, tables. If you translate the work of another person into French or English and do not cite the source, this is also plagiarism. If you cite your own work without the correct citation, this is also plagiarism.

Some people plagiarize unknowingly, often through lack of experience, while others do it deliberately to deceive. As plagiarism is one of the worst crimes that one can commit in academia, students should know how to avoid it.

B. PrОpКrО К quОstionnКirО to stuНв tСО “prКМtiМО” oП plagiarizing in your group. Collect, analyze the data and make a conclusion.

Read the following fragments and say, which of the texts (1 2) can be considered plagiarized. Why?

Original

Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotation in the final research paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials while taking notes.

Lester, J. D.Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976) 46-47

Text 1

In research papers, students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the material recorded verbatim (Lester, 1976).

Text 2

Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in too many of them in the final research paper. In fact, only about 10% of the final copy should consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material copied while taking notes (Lester, 1976).

119

A. First, suggest your ideas on the ways to avoid plagiarism in research papers. Then, compare your ideas with the information from the following passage.

When you write a research paper, you have to explain where you got your information. Some of the ideas you use will be your own, but many will come from information you read. If you rely on other sources to provide the evidence for any claims that you make, then you need to inform the reader where the original claims, and evidence supporting them, are

. Follow these rules to avoid being accused of plagiarism:

paraphrase information and provide a reference;

summarize or synthesize information and provide a reference;

quote directly the words and provide a reference;

copy tables, graphs, diagrams and so on and provide a reference.

B.Explain the meaning of the verbs from the box. Give some

examples to reveal their meaning.made

to paraphrase to summarize

A. Summarize the following information.

The ability to summarize and paraphrase is an essential academic skill. Summary and paraphrase help substantiate ideas in research papers without the need to quote every word from source material. To paraphrase means to express someone else's ideas in your own language. To summarize means to distill only the most essential points of someone else's work. You can be accused of plagiarism if you change only a few words from the original source and use that as your summary or paraphrase. Be careful to use YOUR OWN words and sentences, YOUR OWN style. Merely citing the source is not enough if you then go on to copy the language and structure of the source. This can also help you to save space and connect ideas smoothly.

B. Which of the samples (1 4) are examples of plagiarism?

ORIGINAL VERSION (Lightfoot, 1995)

The upshot of maintaining separate subfields is that the archaeological remains of native peoples in any one region are being investigated by different teams of specialists who employ very different theoretical approaches and methodological techniques.

120

Sample 1

The perpetuation of distinct subfields in archaeology means that Native American archaeological sites in the same region are being analyzed by different groups of scholars using different analytical approaches and methodologies.

Sample 2

LigСtПШШt (1λλ5μβ0γ) КrРuОs tСКt, “The upshot of maintaining separate subfields is that the archaeological remains of native peoples in any

one region are being investigated by different teams of specialists who employ very different theoretical approaches КЧН ЦОtСШНШХШРТМКХ tОМСЧТquОs”.

Sample 3

Prehistoric archaeologists of a given region are usually called in to investigate Native American sites. These sites may be analyzed by completely different specialists using completely different theories and methodologies (Lightfoot 1995:203).

Sample 4

The subfield division between prehistoric and historic archaeology sometimes interferes with comparison and cooperation, argues Lightfoot (1995:203). As an illustration, he points out that Native American sites are investigated by prehistoric archaeologists. The problem stems from the fact that even though such sites might be similar, they will be analyzed using very different research tools depending on who is doing the investigation.

A. Study the given phrases and verbs commonly used to intro-

duce quotations.

In the words oП …; AММШrНТЧР tШ …; IЧ …’s ЯТОа …

argues;	writes;	points out;	concludes;	comments;	notes;
maintains;	suggests;	insists;	observes;	counters;	asserts;
states;	claims;	demonstrates;	says;	explains;	reveals.

B. Practise making quotations. Use any research papers relevant to your research topic.

121

Give your groupmates recommendations on the ways to avoid mistakes in the process of writing about their research.

Useful phrases:
I tСТЧФ …	refer to	put … ПТrst/ХКst
tШ Цв ЦТЧН …	make sure	match
yШu sСШuХН …	omit	enclose
yШu МКЧ ЧШt …	prefer	ineffectual phrases
rather than ...	use	never
submit to	place	always

Comment on the quotes below.

122

A

Use appropriate words in the context:

1.Scientists use the … literature to gain an overview of research areas that are close to or relevant to their own. (primary/secondary)

2.The … section of a scientific paper describes how the study was conducted. (discussion/method)

3.The … section of a scientific paper critically evaluates the meaning and reliability of the study. (discussion/results)

4.In a given year, the … of a journal is the average number of citations received per paper published in that journal during the two preceding years. (impact factor/h-index)

5.The big parts of a story should stick together, but the small parts need some stickum as well. When the big parts fit, we call that good feeling …; when sentences connect, we call it … (cohesion/coherence)

6.If you rearrange a sentence by changing its structure while maintaining the original words, or changing a few words to synonyms, Тt Тs МКХХОН …

(paraphrasing/ plagiarizing)

BEvaluate the quality of scientific writing (logic, accuracy, style, quotation).

Human resources should be considered as the significant organizational asset. The application of the appropriate strategies for its development, can lead to the improvements of the corporate performance both in

the short and the long time. There are also companies where human re- sШurМОs КrО ЧШt МШЧsТНОrОН Кs СКЯТЧР pКrtТМuХКr ТЦpШrtКЧМО ПШr tСО ПТrЦs’ growth. TСОrО КrО ПТrЦs tСКt “ЯТОа tСОТr СuЦКЧ rОsШurМОs Кs КЧ ОбpОЧsО ra-

ther than an asset - an element that is expendable and perhaps discarded when the skills possessed becomes obsolete; however when human resources are viewed as asset, companies enhance individual value through

training and human development and ensure continued contribution to the ШrРКЧТгКtТШЧ”. TСО ТЦpШrtКЧМО ШП the human resources for the corporate

performance has in any case proved both in the literature and the empirical researches conducted in all industrial sectors.

123

C Rewrite the paragraph from a PhD thesis making all necessary corrections.

Using of the Discrete Element Method (DEM) in engineering has increasingly been the object of study in recent years, from geotechnical engineering (Ting, et al., 1989; Ting and Corkum, 1992; Oda, et al., 1982) to reduction of disasters (Bourrier, et al., 2007; Shiu, et al., 2006). Today, depending on the rapid development in computer science, DEM has been applied to modeling a more complex physical phenomena and solving more difficult engineering problems which beyond our own imagination.

D

Take these tests on quotation and information search.

http://www.esc.edu/online-writing-enter/resources/exercises/activities/distinguish- between-summaries-and-paraphrases/

http://www.esc.edu/online-writing-center/resources/exercises/activities/sample- search/

How do you assess your results?

Excellent

Good

I need more practice

124