О. М. Ільченко Англійська мова для науковців

Chapter 6

101

Exercise 3. Translate the following table.

102

Chapters

GRAMMAR:

MODAL VERBS AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS (PHRASAL MODALS)

Modal verbs are used when we say that we expect things to happen, or that events are possible (necessary, improbable, impossible), or when we say that things did not happen, or when we are not sure whether they happened.

Modal verbs have no -s ending for the third person singular, they are followed by the infinitive WITHOUT to (except for ought to).

Modal verbs can be used with perfect infinitives to talk about things that did not happen, or which we are not sure about in the past.

Modal verbs make questions and negative forms WITHOUT using do/did.

Modal verbs are: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to, dare. In British English need can be both a modal verb and an ordinary verb. In American English it is NOT used as a modal.

	MODAL VERBS
1. can, could,	meaning	equivalents (phrasal modals)
can't, couldn't,
could have
can	present ability	to be able to
	теперішня можливість
I can drive.		Ann is able to type.
Я можу (вмію) водити машину.		Енн може (вміє) друкувати.
I could speak German when I was a child.	past abilitv	I was able to speak German when
У дитинстві я вмів розмовляти	можливість у минулому	I was a child.
німецькою.		У дитинстві я вмів розмовляти
		німецькою.
—	future abilitv	Не will be able to pass the exam.
	можливість у майбутньому	Bін зможе скласти іспит.
You can/could use my phone.	permission
Можете скористатися моїм телефоном.	дозвіл
The dictionary can be on this shelf.	possibility
Словник може знаходитись на цій	можливість
полиці.
Could he be there?
Може, він там? (напевне це невідомо)
Thev could have written the letter if they	past possibility (uncertain if the
wanted to.	action occurred)
Якби вони схотіли, то написали б листа	можливість у минулому
(могли б написати).	(невідомо, чи дія відбулась)
Не could have done it.
Можливо, він це i зробив (але напевне
невідомо).
I can't understand.	іmpossibility
Я не можу зрозуміти.	неможливість
Не couldn't speak.
Bін не міг говорити.
Could you wait?	polite request
Чи не могли б ви зачекати?	ввічливе прохання

	Chapter 6		103
2 may, might,		meaning	equivalents (phrasal modals)
	might have
He mav/might be in the library.		рrobability
He might have read this book.		ймовірність, можливість
Можливо, він прочитав цю книгу.
You may ask any questions.		permission	to be allowed to
Можете ставити будь-які запитання.		дозвіл	to be permitted to
May I speak to professor Johnson?			You're allowed to bring
Чи можу я поговорити з професором			dictionaries.
Джонсоном?
			Можете принести словники.
Не may go to the libraiy.		uncertain possibility
Може, він піде до бібліотеки (але це не		малоймовірна можливість
дуже ймовірно).
Не might go to the library.
Можливо, він піде до біблютеки (але я
особисто вважаю, шо це не так).
Thev mav/might have arrived in the		past possibility
morning. I'm not guite sure.		можливість у минулому про яку
Можливо, вони приїхали вранці. Я не		невідомо, чи вона відбулася
дуже впевнений у цьому.
3 must, must, have		meaning	equivalents (phrasal modals)
	must not
All students must attend these classes.		necessity and obligation	to be to
Усі студенти повинні відвідувати ці		необхдність та обов'язковість	to have to
заняття			You have to (are to) come on
			time.
			Вам доведеться прийти вчасно.
			to have got to
			I've got to go to the university.
			Мені треба (я повинен) йти до
			універсітету.
You must read it. It's marvellous.		advisabilitv	to advise
Ви повинні прочитати — це чудова		порада	«it's a good idea»
річ!
John must be ill. Мабуть.		probability
Джон захворів.		ймовірність, можливість
I must have lost mv book somewhere.
Мабуть, я десь загубив свою книгу.

	104			Chapter 6
You mustn't drive fast.		absense of
There is a speed limit here.		obligation
Ви не повинні їхати швидко.		відсутність
На цій дорозі обмеження швидкості.		необхідності
You must not = it is forbidden			You don't have to = it is not required
Compare:
You needn't drive fast.
We've plenty of time.
He треба їхати швидко — у нас досить
часу.
Also:
— Must I read?
Я повинен читати?
—No, you needn’t.
Hi, не треба.
—No, you mustn’t.
Hi, не повинні.
4. shall, should,		meaning		equivalents (phrasal modals)
should have;
will, would,
would have;
ought to
Candidates should be prepared to answer		necessity
questions.		and		to be supposed to
Кандидати повинні бути готові дати		obligation
відповіді на запитання.		необхідність та обов'язковість		You are supposed to studv every
You ought to study every day.				day.
Ви повинні вчитися щодня.				Ви повинні вчитися щодня.
MIND negative form for ought to:
You ought to translate this article, but
she shouldn't.
This theory shall be referred to. На цю
теорію треба (обов'язково) послатися.
You should studv harder.		advice		to advise
Було б непогано, якби ви вчилися більш		(порaда)
наполегливо.
Perhaps, vou should have called him		advisable action (unfulfilled)
earlier.		порада, що не була здійснена
Можливо, треба було зателефонувати
йому раніше.
You ought to have given vour phone
number.
Треба було дати свій номер телефону.

	Chapter 6		105
	It should rain.	logical conclusion
	Здається, зараз піде дощ (логічно	логічний висновок
	припустити, що піде дощ).
	Shall I help you?	offer пропозиція
	Вам допомогти?
	Ice will/would melt at 0° С.	habitual action
	Льод тане при нульовій температурі.	звичайна дія
	This procedure would not be used in this case.
	У цьому випадку така методика звичайно
	не використовується.
	I would like to comment it.	wish бажання
	Мені хотілося б це прокоментувати.
	Would you wait?	polite request
	Would you mind waiting?	or refusal
	Ви б не зачекали, будь ласка?	ввічливе прохання або
	Не would not agree.	відмова
	Bін не погодиться (не схоче погодитися).
	5. had better;	meaning	equivalents (phrasal modals)
	would rather;
	dare
	You're pressed for time, you had better go.	advisablilitv
	У вас обмаль часу, краще вам зараз піти.	порада
	I would rather not say what I think.	preference	to prefer
	Краще я не буду казати про те, що думаю.	надання переваги
	Did he dare (to) criticize the boss?	challenge
	І він насмілився критикувати начальника?	виклик

106

Chapter 6

Chapter 6

107

NOTE

* a must - something which is necessary or very important

Renovation of the laboratory is a must. Реконструкція лабораторії є конче необхідною. * able - clever or skillful, competent

She is an able teacher.Вона — здібний вчитель.

Exercise 4. What does it mean to be «a fluent speaker of a foreign language»? Decide ____what a person must/should/can/may/might be able to do. Then study the numerical rating system developed by one of the departments of U.S. State Department. How would you rate your own abilities in English? If you speak other languages, rate yourself as well.

1 — Elementary proficiency

able to satisfy routine travel needs (hotels, prices etc.);

able to ask, answer, and understand questions and statements about simple topics related to daily life;

frequent errors in grammar and vocabulary.

2 — Limited working proficiency

able to satisfy routine social demands and basic work requirements;

able to speak with confidence, but not easily, on such topics as current events, personal information, daily job requirements;

can understand the general meaning of most conversations and speak clearly enough to be understood by all native speakers;

can use simple basic grammar accurately, but may require help to express more complex ideas.

3 — Minimum professional proficiency

able to satisfy all normal social and work requirements with fluency and accuracy, as well as professional discussions in a special field;

can understand all conversations at normal speed;

vocabulary is broad enough;

errors in grammar and vocabulary are infrequent and never interfere with understanding;

4 — Full professional proficiency

can handle any conversation with a high degree of fluency and precision;

errors in grammar and pronunciation are extremely rare, but still listeners would not assume one to be a native speaker;

can do informal interpreting to and from the language;

5 — Bilingual proficiency

 complete fluency in the language equivalent to that of an educated native speaker.

108

Chapter6

Exercise 5. Choose the correct option.

1.

A:Where's Ann?

B:I'm not sure. She __ at the meeting.

a.is

b.might be

c.must be

d.could have been

2.

A:How does Andy get to the University?

B:I don't really know. He __ the bus.

a.might take

b.takes

c.must take

d.will take

3.

A:It's really cold in here today.

B:Yes, somebody __ the window open.

a.must leave

b.might leave

c.must have left

d.will leave

4.

A:Have you heard the weather forecast?

B:No, but look at those clouds in the sky! I think it ____ rain.

a.could

b.is going

c.should

d.ought to

5.

A:Did Mr. Brown call while I was out?

B:I'm not sure. He __ .

a.might have

b.might

c.did

d.didn't

6.

A:Are you coming with us?

B:I'm not sure. I ___ go the library instead.

a.must

b.will

c.might

d.shall

Chapter 6

109

7.

A: Can I speak to professor Johnson?

В: She's not in her office, and she doesn't have any more classes today, so she __ home.

a.might go

b.must have gone

c.will probably go

d.would probably go

Exercise 6. Render the following passage into Ukrainian. Pay special attention to linguistic devices denoting probability.

The word «dinosaur» means «terrible lizard». About 150 million years ago there were many kinds of dinosaurs. Dinosaurs have been extinct for 65 million years. Several theories have been proposed about why the dinosaurs disappeared from the face of the Earth.

One theory is the climatic change theory. This theory says that millions of years ago the climate of the world gradually became colder. The cold weather finally resulted in a severe shortage of food for the dinosaurs. The disappearance was directly caused by a shortage of food, and indirectly — by climatic changes. According to this theory, the dinosaurs may have disappeared slowly and gradually.

Evidence has recently been accumulated that this extinction was sudden and was caused by a huge asteroid that hit the Earth. Among the signs is the element iridium released from the asteroid in the impact. The impact would have raised so much dust into atmosphere that sunlight could have been shut out for months. Many species of plants and animals would not have been able to survive. In particular, large animals like dinosaurs could not have taken refuge in caves the way the smaller ones may have.

A still newer idea is based on possible periodicity of 28 million years between mass extinction on the Earth: an undiscovered companion to the Sun comes to the inner part of its orbit, and its gravity then sends a number of comets towards the Earth. Fortunately, the star — for which the name «Nemesis» is unofficially waiting — isn't due back for 15 million years even if it exists.

Scientists continue to debate these theories. In the future, evidence may be found for a new theory.

Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian.

1.This, of course, does not prove the statement, but it may help to persuade you of its truth.

2.You've got to do your homework.

3.Nobody will dare deny that this is possible.

4.This might make the computations simpler, but this also reduces the usefulness of the theory.

5.Max would rather study languages than biology.

6.You could have at least sent an invitation.

7.A lecturer must be able to explain things clearly.

8.Must you leave so soon?

9.Anything is possible if you dare.

10.Often what is needed has to be greatly modified in the light of what is possible.

110

Chapter 6

Text B. Read the following passage and paraphrase it.

Acronyms and Initialisms

Acronyms and initialisms are very common in English. Acronyms are words that are formed from the first letters of words in a phrase. For example, the word «laser» is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Acronyms are pronounced as words.

Initialisms, on the other hand, are not pronounced as words: each letter in an initialism is pronounced as a letter, e.g. IBM, which stands for the company International Business Machines.

More examples: avionics — aviation electronics, WORM — write once, read many, descriptive of a memory combining magnetic and laser-based recording on which the user (not a vendor) records data but cannot later modify it.

Radar

The word radar comes from radio detection and ranging. Radar is a detection device that uses radio waves to detect objects in the air.

Sonar

The word sonar comes from sound navigation and ranging. Sonar is a detection device that uses sound waves to detect objects.

REM

Most people need between six and eight hours of sleep a night. Some need more, and some need less. All of us, however, need a certain amount of REM sleep. REM means «Rapid-Eye-Movement». REM sleep happens mostly during dreams, for short periods about four to five times per night.

VIP — very important person

— висока посадова особа

СЕО — chief executive officer

TBA — to be announced (about any event — a lecture, a meeting etc.)

PLA — prior learning assessment (and recognition)—екстернат dept — department

Acad. — Academy

Assn. — Association s/he — she or he

UN ~ United Nations (Organization) — ООН

MP — Member of Parliament

*TGIF —Thank God it's Friday - нарешті настала п'ятниця (скоро вихдні)