- •In praise of the fourth edition
- •CONTENTS
- •FOREWORD
- •The concept of consulting
- •Purpose of the book
- •Terminology
- •Plan of the book
- •ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
- •1.1 What is consulting?
- •Box 1.1 On giving and receiving advice
- •1.2 Why are consultants used? Five generic purposes
- •Figure 1.1 Generic consulting purposes
- •Box 1.2 Define the purpose, not the problem
- •1.3 How are consultants used? Ten principal ways
- •Box 1.3 Should consultants justify management decisions?
- •1.4 The consulting process
- •Figure 1.2 Phases of the consulting process
- •1.5 Evolving concepts and scope of management consulting
- •2 THE CONSULTING INDUSTRY
- •2.1 A historical perspective
- •2.2 The current consulting scene
- •2.3 Range of services provided
- •2.4 Generalist and specialist services
- •2.5 Main types of consulting organization
- •2.6 Internal consultants
- •2.7 Management consulting and other professions
- •Figure 2.1 Professional service infrastructure
- •2.8 Management consulting, training and research
- •Box 2.1 Factors differentiating research and consulting
- •3.1 Defining expectations and roles
- •Box 3.1 What it feels like to be a buyer
- •3.2 The client and the consultant systems
- •Box 3.2 Various categories of clients within a client system
- •Box 3.3 Attributes of trusted advisers
- •3.4 Behavioural roles of the consultant
- •Box 3.4 Why process consultation must be a part of every consultation
- •3.5 Further refinement of the role concept
- •3.6 Methods of influencing the client system
- •3.7 Counselling and coaching as tools of consulting
- •Box 3.5 The ICF on coaching and consulting
- •4 CONSULTING AND CHANGE
- •4.1 Understanding the nature of change
- •Figure 4.1 Time span and level of difficulty involved for various levels of change
- •Box 4.1 Which change comes first?
- •Box 4.2 Reasons for resistance to change
- •4.2 How organizations approach change
- •Box 4.3 What is addressed in planning change?
- •Box 4.4 Ten overlapping management styles, from no participation to complete participation
- •4.3 Gaining support for change
- •4.4 Managing conflict
- •Box 4.5 How to manage conflict
- •4.5 Structural arrangements and interventions for assisting change
- •5 CONSULTING AND CULTURE
- •5.1 Understanding and respecting culture
- •Box 5.1 What do we mean by culture?
- •5.2 Levels of culture
- •Box 5.2 Cultural factors affecting management
- •Box 5.3 Japanese culture and management consulting
- •Box 5.4 Cultural values and norms in organizations
- •5.3 Facing culture in consulting assignments
- •Box 5.5 Characteristics of “high-tech” company cultures
- •6.1 Is management consulting a profession?
- •6.2 The professional approach
- •Box 6.1 The power of the professional adviser
- •Box 6.2 Is there conflict of interest? Test your value system.
- •Box 6.3 On audit and consulting
- •6.3 Professional associations and codes of conduct
- •6.4 Certification and licensing
- •Box 6.4 International model for consultant certification (CMC)
- •6.5 Legal liability and professional responsibility
- •7 ENTRY
- •7.1 Initial contacts
- •Box 7.1 What a buyer looks for
- •7.2 Preliminary problem diagnosis
- •Figure 7.1 The consultant’s approach to a management survey
- •Box 7.2 Information materials for preliminary surveys
- •7.3 Terms of reference
- •Box 7.3 Terms of reference – checklist
- •7.4 Assignment strategy and plan
- •Box 7.4 Concepts and terms used in international technical cooperation projects
- •7.5 Proposal to the client
- •7.6 The consulting contract
- •Box 7.5 Confidential information on the client organization
- •Box 7.6 What to cover in a contract – checklist
- •8 DIAGNOSIS
- •8.1 Conceptual framework of diagnosis
- •8.2 Diagnosing purposes and problems
- •Box 8.1 The focus purpose – an example
- •Box 8.2 Issues in problem identification
- •8.3 Defining necessary facts
- •8.4 Sources and ways of obtaining facts
- •Box 8.3 Principles of effective interviewing
- •8.5 Data analysis
- •Box 8.4 Cultural factors in data-gathering – some examples
- •Box 8.5 Difficulties and pitfalls of causal analysis
- •Figure 8.1 Force-field analysis
- •Figure 8.2 Various bases for comparison
- •8.6 Feedback to the client
- •9 ACTION PLANNING
- •9.1 Searching for possible solutions
- •Box 9.1 Checklist of preliminary considerations
- •Box 9.2 Variables for developing new forms of transport
- •9.2 Developing and evaluating alternatives
- •Box 9.3 Searching for an ideal solution – three checklists
- •9.3 Presenting action proposals to the client
- •10 IMPLEMENTATION
- •10.1 The consultant’s role in implementation
- •10.2 Planning and monitoring implementation
- •10.3 Training and developing client staff
- •10.4 Some tactical guidelines for introducing changes in work methods
- •Figure 10.1 Comparison of the effects on eventual performance when using individualized versus conformed initial approaches
- •Figure 10.2 Comparison of spaced practice with a continuous or massed practice approach in terms of performance
- •Figure 10.3 Generalized illustration of the high points in attention level of a captive audience
- •10.5 Maintenance and control of the new practice
- •11.1 Time for withdrawal
- •11.2 Evaluation
- •11.3 Follow-up
- •11.4 Final reporting
- •12.1 Nature and scope of consulting in corporate strategy and general management
- •12.2 Corporate strategy
- •12.3 Processes, systems and structures
- •12.4 Corporate culture and management style
- •12.5 Corporate governance
- •13.1 The developing role of information technology
- •13.2 Scope and special features of IT consulting
- •13.3 An overall model of information systems consulting
- •Figure 13.1 A model of IT consulting
- •Figure 13.2 An IT systems portfolio
- •13.4 Quality of information systems
- •13.5 The providers of IT consulting services
- •Box 13.1 Choosing an IT consultant
- •13.6 Managing an IT consulting project
- •13.7 IT consulting to small businesses
- •13.8 Future perspectives
- •14.1 Creating value
- •14.2 The basic tools
- •14.3 Working capital and liquidity management
- •14.4 Capital structure and the financial markets
- •14.5 Mergers and acquisitions
- •14.6 Finance and operations: capital investment analysis
- •14.7 Accounting systems and budgetary control
- •14.8 Financial management under inflation
- •15.1 The marketing strategy level
- •15.2 Marketing operations
- •15.3 Consulting in commercial enterprises
- •15.4 International marketing
- •15.5 Physical distribution
- •15.6 Public relations
- •16 CONSULTING IN E-BUSINESS
- •16.1 The scope of e-business consulting
- •Figure 16.1 Classification of the connected relationship
- •Box 16.1 British Telecom entering new markets
- •Box 16.2 Pricing models
- •Box 16.3 EasyRentaCar.com breaks the industry rules
- •Box 16.4 The ThomasCook.com story
- •16.4 Dot.com organizations
- •16.5 Internet research
- •17.1 Developing an operations strategy
- •Box 17.1 Performance criteria of operations
- •Box 17.2 Major types of manufacturing choice
- •17.2 The product perspective
- •Box 17.3 Central themes in ineffective and effective development projects
- •17.3 The process perspective
- •17.4 The human aspects of operations
- •18.1 The changing nature of the personnel function
- •18.2 Policies, practices and the human resource audit
- •Box 18.1 The human resource audit (data for the past 12 months)
- •18.3 Human resource planning
- •18.4 Recruitment and selection
- •18.5 Motivation and remuneration
- •18.6 Human resource development
- •18.7 Labour–management relations
- •18.8 New areas and issues
- •Box 18.2 Current issues in Japanese human resource management
- •Box 18.3 Current issues in European HR management
- •19.1 Managing in the knowledge economy
- •Figure 19.1 Knowledge: a key resource of the post-industrial area
- •19.2 Knowledge-based value creation
- •Figure 19.2 The competence ladder
- •Figure 19.3 Four modes of knowledge transformation
- •Figure 19.4 Components of intellectual capital
- •Figure 19.5 What is your strategy to manage knowledge?
- •19.3 Developing a knowledge organization
- •Figure 19.6 Implementation paths for knowledge management
- •Box 19.1 The Siemens Business Services knowledge management framework
- •20.1 Shifts in productivity concepts, factors and conditions
- •Figure 20.1 An integrated model of productivity factors
- •Figure 20.2 A results-oriented human resource development cycle
- •20.2 Productivity and performance measurement
- •Figure 20.3 The contribution of productivity to profits
- •20.3 Approaches and strategies to improve productivity
- •Figure 20.4 Kaizen building-blocks
- •Box 20.1 Green productivity practices
- •Figure 20.5 Nokia’s corporate fitness rating
- •Box 20.2 Benchmarking process
- •20.4 Designing and implementing productivity and performance improvement programmes
- •Figure 20.6 The performance improvement planning process
- •Figure 20.7 The “royal road” of productivity improvement
- •20.5 Tools and techniques for productivity improvement
- •Box 20.3 Some simple productivity tools
- •Box 20.4 Multipurpose productivity techniques
- •Box 20.5 Tools used by most successful companies
- •21.1 Understanding TQM
- •21.2 Cost of quality – quality is free
- •Figure 21.1 Typical quality cost reduction
- •Box 21.1 Cost items of non-conformance associated with internal and external failures
- •Box 21.2 The cost items of conformance
- •21.3 Principles and building-blocks of TQM
- •Figure 21.2 TQM business structures
- •21.4 Implementing TQM
- •Box 21.3 The road to TQM
- •Figure 21.3 TQM process blocks
- •21.5 Principal TQM tools
- •Box 21.4 Tools for simple tasks in quality improvement
- •Figure 21.4 Quality tools according to quality improvement steps
- •Box 21.5 Powerful tools for company-wide TQM
- •21.6 ISO 9000 as a vehicle to TQM
- •21.7 Pitfalls and problems of TQM
- •21.8 Impact on management
- •21.9 Consulting competencies for TQM
- •22.1 What is organizational transformation?
- •22.2 Preparing for transformation
- •Figure 22.1 The change-resistant organization
- •22.3 Strategies and processes of transformation
- •Figure 22.2 Linkage between transformation types and organizational conditions
- •Figure 22.3 Relationships between business performance and types of transformation
- •Box 22.1 Eight stages for transforming an organization
- •22.4 Company turnarounds
- •Box 22.2 Implementing a turnaround plan
- •22.5 Downsizing
- •22.6 Business process re-engineering (BPR)
- •22.7 Outsourcing and insourcing
- •22.8 Joint ventures for transformation
- •22.9 Mergers and acquisitions
- •Box 22.3 Restructuring through acquisitions: the case of Cisco Systems
- •22.10 Networking arrangements
- •22.11 Transforming organizational structures
- •22.12 Ownership restructuring
- •22.13 Privatization
- •22.14 Pitfalls and errors to avoid in transformation
- •23.1 The social dimension of business
- •23.2 Current concepts and trends
- •Box 23.1 International guidelines on socially responsible business
- •23.3 Consulting services
- •Box 23.2 Typology of corporate citizenship consulting
- •23.4 A strategic approach to corporate responsibility
- •Figure 23.1 The total responsibility management system
- •23.5 Consulting in specific functions and areas of business
- •23.6 Future perspectives
- •24.1 Characteristics of small enterprises
- •24.2 The role and profile of the consultant
- •24.4 Areas of special concern
- •24.5 An enabling environment
- •24.6 Innovations in small-business consulting
- •25.1 What is different about micro-enterprises?
- •Box 25.1 Consulting in the informal sector – a mini case study
- •25.3 The special skills of micro-enterprise consultants
- •Box 25.2 Private consulting services for micro-enterprises
- •26.1 The evolving role of government
- •Box 26.1 Reinventing government
- •26.2 Understanding the public sector environment
- •Figure 26.1 The public sector decision-making process
- •Box 26.2 The consultant–client relationship in support of decision-making
- •Box 26.3 “Shoulds” and “should nots” in consulting to government
- •26.3 Working with public sector clients throughout the consulting cycle
- •26.4 The service providers
- •26.5 Some current challenges
- •27.1 The management challenge of the professions
- •27.2 Managing a professional service
- •Box 27.1 Challenges in people management
- •27.3 Managing a professional business
- •Box 27.2 Leverage and profitability
- •Box 27.3 Hunters and farmers
- •27.4 Achieving excellence professionally and in business
- •28.1 The strategic approach
- •28.2 The scope of client services
- •Box 28.1 Could consultants live without fads?
- •28.3 The client base
- •28.4 Growth and expansion
- •28.5 Going international
- •28.6 Profile and image of the firm
- •Box 28.2 Five prototypes of consulting firms
- •28.7 Strategic management in practice
- •Box 28.3 Strategic audit of a consulting firm: checklist of questions
- •Box 28.4 What do we want to know about competitors?
- •Box 28.5 Environmental factors affecting strategy
- •29.1 The marketing approach in consulting
- •Box 29.1 Marketing of consulting: seven fundamental principles
- •29.2 A client’s perspective
- •29.3 Techniques for marketing the consulting firm
- •Box 29.2 Criteria for selecting consultants
- •Box 29.3 Branding – the new myth of marketing?
- •29.4 Techniques for marketing consulting assignments
- •29.5 Marketing to existing clients
- •Box 29.4 The cost of marketing efforts: an example
- •29.6 Managing the marketing process
- •Box 29.5 Information about clients
- •30 COSTS AND FEES
- •30.1 Income-generating activities
- •Table 30.1 Chargeable time
- •30.2 Costing chargeable services
- •30.3 Marketing-policy considerations
- •30.4 Principal fee-setting methods
- •30.5 Fair play in fee-setting and billing
- •30.6 Towards value billing
- •30.7 Costing and pricing an assignment
- •30.8 Billing clients and collecting fees
- •Box 30.1 Information to be provided in a bill
- •31 ASSIGNMENT MANAGEMENT
- •31.1 Structuring and scheduling an assignment
- •31.2 Preparing for an assignment
- •Box 31.1 Checklist of points for briefing
- •31.3 Managing assignment execution
- •31.4 Controlling costs and budgets
- •31.5 Assignment records and reports
- •Figure 31.1 Notification of assignment
- •Box 31.2 Assignment reference report – a checklist
- •31.6 Closing an assignment
- •32.1 What is quality management in consulting?
- •Box 32.1 Primary stakeholders’ needs
- •Box 32.2 Responsibility for quality
- •32.2 Key elements of a quality assurance programme
- •Box 32.3 Introducing a quality assurance programme
- •Box 32.4 Assuring quality during assignments
- •32.3 Quality certification
- •32.4 Sustaining quality
- •33.1 Operating workplan and budget
- •Box 33.1 Ways of improving efficiency and raising profits
- •Table 33.2 Typical structure of expenses and income
- •33.2 Performance monitoring
- •Box 33.2 Monthly controls: a checklist
- •Figure 33.1 Expanded profit model for consulting firms
- •33.3 Bookkeeping and accounting
- •34.1 Drivers for knowledge management in consulting
- •34.2 Factors inherent in the consulting process
- •34.3 A knowledge management programme
- •34.4 Sharing knowledge with clients
- •Box 34.1 Checklist for applying knowledge management in a small or medium-sized consulting firm
- •35.1 Legal forms of business
- •35.2 Management and operations structure
- •Figure 35.1 Possible organizational structure of a consulting company
- •Figure 35.2 Professional core of a consulting unit
- •35.3 IT support and outsourcing
- •35.4 Office facilities
- •36.1 Personal characteristics of consultants
- •36.2 Recruitment and selection
- •Box 36.1 Qualities of a consultant
- •36.3 Career development
- •Box 36.2 Career structure in a consulting firm
- •36.4 Compensation policies and practices
- •Box 36.3 Criteria for partners’ compensation
- •Box 36.4 Ideas for improving compensation policies
- •37.1 What should consultants learn?
- •Box 37.1 Areas of consultant knowledge and skills
- •37.2 Training of new consultants
- •Figure 37.1 Consultant development matrix
- •37.3 Training methods
- •Box 37.2 Training in process consulting
- •37.4 Further training and development of consultants
- •37.5 Motivation for consultant development
- •37.6 Learning options available to sole practitioners
- •38 PREPARING FOR THE FUTURE
- •38.1 Your market
- •Box 38.1 Change in the consulting business
- •38.2 Your profession
- •38.3 Your self-development
- •38.4 Conclusion
- •APPENDICES
- •4 TERMS OF A CONSULTING CONTRACT
- •5 CONSULTING AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
- •7 WRITING REPORTS
- •SUBJECT INDEX
Consulting in total quality management
21.7 Pitfalls and problems of TQM
Like any management approach, TQM does not protect from failures and implementation problems. According to data provided by the Juran Institute,9 80 per cent of the companies that tackled TQM in the 1980s failed. One of the reasons is that the origin and dissemination patterns of TQM are quite different from those of almost every other management innovation of the past 30 years. As a result, many companies have misunderstood and misapplied it. It has not received the careful academic scrutiny that has served to give credence and authority to other innovations in organization and management.
Management may well go into a TQM process without a proper understanding of the necessary organizational conditions for its successful implementation, or of the barriers existing in the company. Some of these barriers are:
●Lack of awareness among top managers about TQM, its potential, when to use it and their own role in managing quality.
●A company culture that is not conducive; changing culture is difficult.
●Middle managers who are reluctant to change their attitudes and behaviour.
●Lack of time and funding for the training and development of teams.
●Difficulty in quantifying tangible benefits, leading to a feeling that the effort is not worth while.
However, in most cases, poor results of TQM are caused by top managers. They often have an incorrect vision disconnected from organizational values and behaviour, and their objectives are vague and short-term. They do not understand TQM and fail to set an example, believing that others have to change and perform better but not them. Very few senior managers understand statistics, and do not look at the world in terms of data and facts but rather through gut feeling. Also, employees are often not well trained in the new skills required by TQM; they may feel threatened and are not properly motivated since they do not see the potential benefits of TQM. Too much emphasis on doing things right the first time often kills creativity and initiative, and deprives employees of learning from experience.
In many organizations, CEOs and senior line managers are late in confronting issues of software quality. As a result, many companies have accumulated a lot of incompatible, customized software systems designed to handle the same applications. IT companies often face similar problems, particularly if they have grown rapidly through a series of acquisitions.10
Ignoring the customer is another common mistake in implementing TQM. And certainly one of the major management mistakes is selecting TQM for the wrong task. TQM cannot be used, for example, to introduce very fast and radical change. It is not a cure-all. It does not directly address such factors of success as competitive positioning, marketing, financial structure, diversification, organizational structure and corporate strategy, nor does it adequately support aggressive cost
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management. The TQM approach to organizational restructuring is ineffective in most situations, especially where organizations need fast and significant improvement.
21.8 Impact on management
The long road towards TQM takes companies into a new landscape where authority, decisions and innovation are much more widely shared. That is why the first priority in implementing company-wide TQM is to recognize its revolutionary character and permit it to drive system-wide changes. TQM demands that top management become agents of change, redefining management roles and structure, and accepting loss of their own power in the process. Attempting to foster quality improvement in production operations in the lower echelons of the organization while maintaining conventional top-down management inevitably creates conflict. Thus, TQM upsets traditional power structures and ways of doing business. It changes the way people work and the processes used – from design to delivery. TQM holds that change within an organization is inevitable.
Implications for management style and practices
Consultants have to make sure that management takes ownership of TQM and allows it to cascade down the entire organization. Ownership of TQM comes in the form of management making a total commitment to excellence, and it cannot be delegated since ownership rests with the top management. It is a strategic decision which signals a total organizational commitment to excellence, to be embraced by all. An organization that starts on the TQM journey should have an appropriate system in place to achieve managerial excellence.
A good summary of the features of the TQM management style has been made by Kano.11 It includes:
●Management by facts: managing or following the PDCA cycle on the basis of facts rather than relying solely on experience and intuition (although they are important).
●Process management: paying attention to the process steps of the job, so that planned and targeted performance results are always achieved.
●Three types of managing – maintenance, improvement and development: maintenance is needed to hold the current level of performance steady when it is at the desirable level; improvement is the activity needed to upgrade the current level to a more desirable one; development-type management should promote innovations and creativity.
●Standardization versus creativity and flexibility: creating new products and services does not necessarily mean creating completely original activities from scratch. New products and services invariably include some activities and components that were in previous products and services. There is a need to be original in those areas where there is no previous experience.
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Impact on organizations
Since TQM requires dramatic changes in processes and management practices, it requires a different type of organization as well. Jobs become less specialized, not only horizontally, but vertically too; employee participation in high-level management decisions increases; flows of information and communication become less vertical and more lateral and open. Because of diffusion of coordination and involvement of cross-functional teams in horizontal communication with other teams and units, managers’ span of control increases and some layers of middle management and corporate staff are removed. These changes result in flatter, team-based organizational structures built around processes, not power; clusters and networks become part of corporate structure. It is difficult to implement TQM in a rigid bureaucratic organization.
Within an organization, TQM creates an environment that produces excellence and completely changes the organizational culture. Since dealing with culture may take years, TQM should normally be considered as a long-term approach that in itself facilitates the development of a culture that is consistent, committed, systematic and process-oriented. The following terms express in a telegraphic way what is involved:
●empowerment;
●team-based;
●collaborative management;
●100 per cent involvement in quality;
●continuous learning;
●everyone trained in quality tools;
●strong human resource policies;
●respect for the individual.
If the necessary organizational culture has not been clearly identified and communicated throughout the organization, this should be the first step prior to applying the TQM approach. The simplest way is to determine what the existing culture is and then decide how the TQM approach will fit it, or to identify the gap between what exists and what is desirable from the TQM perspective. A value clarification exercise should start with a review of the elements of the TQM strategy, and then progress to an analysis of what needs to happen within the organization for that strategy to be successful. Values and guiding principles should be the central focus.
21.9 Consulting competencies for TQM
TQM is very similar in its philosophy to the continuous improvement or kaizen system (see Chapter 20). The approach is built on a similar set of assumptions which require a process-consulting approach rather than an expert-oriented one
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(see Chapter 3). The process is one of transforming the organization from within, versus top-down and often forced structural change.
Particularly important for a TQM consultant, besides a thorough knowledge of quality concepts, processes, tools and techniques, are skills in facilitation, questioning, observation and interactive behaviour analysis; patience; communication skills; and the ability to contribute ideas and opinions only when this is required for continuing the TQM process.
1S. Krishnan, A. Agus and N. Husain: “Cost of quality: The hidden costs”, in Total Quality Management (Abingdon), July 2000.
2R. Yogendram: “Cost of quality. Why is it critical?”, in Productivity Digest, Feb. 1999, pp. 37–40.
3Juran Institute: Quality improvement guide (Wilton, CT, 1993).
4K. Bhote: “A powerful new tool kit for 21st century”, in National Productivity Review, Autumn 1997, pp. 29–38.
5Ibid.
6A. Gabor: “He made America think about quality”, in Fortune, 30 Oct. 2000, pp. 119–120.
7See www.iso.org., visited on 2 Apr. 2002.
8Y. Iizuka: “Integrating ISO 9000 with Japan’s TQM”, in APO Productivity Journal, Winter 1996, pp. 3–21.
9H. Blackiston: “A barometer of trends in quality management”, in National Productivity Review, Winter 1996, p. 17.
10C. Prahalad and M. Krishnan: “The new meaning of quality in the information age”, in Harvard Business Review, Sep.–Oct. 1999, pp. 109–117.
11N. Kano (ed.): Guide to TQM in service industries (Tokyo, APO, 1996).
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TRANSFORMATION |
The growing competition linked to globalization, the introduction of new technology, economic liberalization and deregulation, and changing societal expectations and values create an environment of permanent turbulence. Faced with such turbulence, few companies have escaped the need to reorganize, downsize, outsource, acquire or divest. Over the past twenty years, thousands of companies have tried to remake themselves into better competitors, including large organizations such as Ford, General Motors, BMW, British Airways and Cisco.
Whether it is a one-time action to increase shareholder value or an ongoing process aimed at improving general competitiveness, restructuring is going to stay high on the agenda of top executives, social organizations, governments and certainly management consultants. As a result of environmental pressures and changes, a new paradigm of the company has been emerging. The modern company must be flexible, highly customer-oriented, with temporary structures and fewer levels of management. Its managers should have a broader span of control with lower levels having more power and bigger roles. Project teams and self-managing teams are becoming more frequent features of the flexible and successful organization. The company owns and controls its core – the core competencies – while breaking down existing boundaries by outsourcing noncore functions to best-in-class and long-term business partners.
Such a business model requires a corresponding executive mind-set, organizational strategy, corporate culture, and operations achieving the following strategic shifts:
●from vertical integration to value acquisition;
●from seeing organizational size as an advantage to seeing flexibility as an advantage;
●from focus on cost control to focus on generating shareholder value;
●from focus on control of resources to focus on core competencies;
●from managing how to managing what.
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