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relevant criteria for assessing alternatives and develops cause–effect relationships for each, along with an appropriate set of strategies. In this role, however, the consultant is not a direct participant in decision-making, but a retriever of appropriate alternatives facing the decision-maker.

Fact-finder

Fact-finding is an integral part of any consulting assignment, both for developing a database and for resolving intricate client problems. The consultant’s role may even be confined to fact-finding. In this case he or she will assist the client system by choosing the sources of data, using a technique that will get the client more or less involved in gathering and examining data, and presenting data to the client in a way that will show where and why improvements are needed. In this role the consultant functions basically as a researcher.

Process specialist

This is the “pure” process role as described in section 3.4. The consultant focuses chiefly on the interpersonal and intergroup dynamics affecting the process of problem-solving and change. He or she works on developing joint client–consultant diagnostic skills for addressing specific and relevant problems in order to focus on how things are done rather than on what tasks are performed. Furthermore, the consultant helps the client to integrate interpersonal and group skills and events with task-oriented activities, and to observe the best match of relationships. In this role, an important function of the consultant is to provide feedback.

Reflector

When operating in the mode of a reflector, the consultant stimulates the client to prepare and make decisions by asking reflective questions which may help to clarify, modify or change a given situation. In doing so, the consultant may be an arbitrator, an integrator or an emphatic respondent who experiences jointly with the client those blocks that provided the structure and provoked the situation initially.

3.6Methods of influencing the client system

Whether the consultant admits it or not, he or she exercises personal influence on the client system in adopting any one of the behavioural roles described in the previous sections. The consultant has to influence people in order to obtain information, gain confidence and respect, overcome passive resistance, enlist collaboration, and get proposals accepted and implemented. This section will therefore review some general methods of exercising personal influence.6

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Exercising personal influence on the client is not in conflict with a professional approach. The consultant is committed to helping the client to achieve a particular purpose and this may be impossible without influencing certain people. The aim should be to energize and activate the client in the client’s own interest, not to manipulate the client in the interest of the consultant. Nevertheless, the consultant must realize that his or her influence on some people may be strong and that exercising this influence engages considerable technical and moral responsibility. This is an important issue of consulting ethics (see also Chapter 6). The consultant will be able gradually to transfer this responsibility to the client by developing the latter’s knowledge and problem-solving skills. This will help the client to recognize when and in what sense he or she is being influenced, and reach a judgement on whether there are alternatives.

Various methods are available, and it is difficult to say in advance which one will produce the desired effect. These methods reflect the fact that people’s attitudes and decisions have both rational and irrational (emotional) motives, and experience is often the best guide in choosing and combining methods as appropriate. In one case it may be enough to show the client a few meaningful figures and he or she will immediately draw practical conclusions from them. In another case the client may be so impressed by the consultant’s personality, which inspires confidence, that he or she will blindly trust the advice received without examining the rationale behind it. Conversely, clumsy and irritating behaviour will make the client suspicious even if the consultant is absolutely right in his or her conclusions.

Demonstrating technical expertise

The consultant should consider whether he or she enters the client organization as a technical expert enjoying prestige or, on the contrary, as someone totally unknown. Demonstration of theoretical knowledge and practical expertise appeals mainly to technically oriented individuals who are themselves experts in the consultant’s field. This can be done in informal discussions, such as by passing on information on developments in theory, new techniques and equipment, and successful firms or projects in which the consultant has been personally involved. Technically impressive findings or proposals submitted by the consultant may speak for themselves and influence the client’s stance.

Exhibiting professional integrity and sharing knowledge

The consultant’s behaviour at work is closely observed by the client, whose attitude can be influenced by the way in which the consultant exhibits commitment, integrity, a methodical approach and efficiency. These qualities can be demonstrated at various stages and aspects of the assignment – in showing self-discipline and perseverance in fact-finding, demonstrating the ability to discover pitfalls about which the consultant was not informed by the client, persisting in looking for a better technique, making rational use of time, handling delicate matters tactfully,

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and the like. A powerful effect can be achieved if people see that the consultant is sharing knowledge and work methods with them. Asophisticated client quickly recognizes a consultant who is unwilling or unable to share knowledge or is even trying to hide some knowledge (e.g. a decision analysis model) which obviously has an important place in his or her intervention and the advice provided to the client.

Demonstrating empathy with the client

Obtaining the client’s confidence is a condition of success in consulting. The client needs to feel that the consultant cares about and enjoys working with him or her, and wants to be as helpful as possible. The consultant’s interest in the client’s concerns must be genuine and sincere. It must be expressed in deeds, not in flattering words and promises. If the client feels that he or she is regarded and treated as just another income opportunity, the consultant’s impact will be considerably weakened even if the proposals made are technically correct.

Using assertive persuasion

This widely applied method uses the force of logical argument to convince other people that what you want them to do is the correct or most effective action to take. As a rule, new ideas or suggestions are put forward together with arguments for and against, as the consultant presents facts or data to support a position. The method is most effective when the consultant is perceived as knowing what he or she is talking about and seen as relatively objective; the consultant should also know enough about the other person’s situation to speak to specific needs. However, assertive persuasion tends to be overused in consulting and people often think of it as synonymous with influence.

Developing a common vision

A common vision is a shared picture of where you are headed, what you are trying to accomplish, and why it would be worth while for others to help. Articulating exciting possibilities includes generating images of what the future of the organization could be like if a particular course were followed. In addition, the consultant can influence people by showing enthusiasm for what is to be done and for where that action will take the client. The method tends to be more effective when the consultant must influence a number of people and generate collective commitment to action. It does not work if it is not made clear what people can actually do towards achieving the objective. Common vision tends to be the least utilized mode of influence in consulting.

Using participation and trust

This method implies recognizing and involving others by asking and giving credit for their contributions and ideas, and building on what they propose. This

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is accompanied by sharing feelings and being open about one’s own mistakes, shortcomings and lack of knowledge. The purpose is to develop an atmosphere of collaboration and co-responsibility for achieving a common goal. The other people involved must believe that the consultant’s interest in participation and mutual trust is genuine, and that collaboration is the best way to achieve the desired results. Attempts at one-way influence and control should be avoided. Participation is naturally hard to achieve when it is not in the other people’s best interest to cooperate. This method is absolutely essential in collaborative consulting styles that emphasize the client’s active involvement and “ownership” of the problem, as well as of the solutions representing the final outcome of the assignment.

Using rewards and punishments

Consultants normally do not control the same kinds of rewards and punishments as management in the client organization. Nevertheless, they can influence people by giving or taking away from them something that seems desirable. This could be a public acknowledgement (e.g. in a meeting) of a person’s knowledge, achievement or exceptional contribution to the assignment. Enhancing someone’s self-esteem is a reward. Omitting to invite someone to a meeting that he or she would probably like to attend, or withholding some information, could be a punishment. Rewards and punishments that do not motivate people, that are out of proportion to the importance of the issue involved, that are chosen arbitrarily, or that create hostile feelings are likely to produce little or an undesirable effect and should be avoided.

Using tensions and anxieties

Although it is not always realized, tensions and anxieties do play a role in consulting. Often, the very presence of the consultant creates tensions because there are speculations about the hidden reasons for his or her presence, and about possible outcomes that could upset the status quo and affect the positions and interests of individuals or groups. The tensions that exist in the organization can be exploited in collecting information to obtain a true picture of the situation. Interdepartmental competition can be used when choosing the unit in which to start applying a new method in order to demonstrate its feasibility to other units.

In generating and strengthening desire for change, it may be useful to explain what would happen to the organization and/or to the individual if the necessary change were sabotaged or delayed, thus creating a state of anxiety. It may be enough to produce data showing that the organization is already or is likely to be in trouble (see also section 4.4).

Here again, a wrongly focused and excessive use of tensions and anxieties will produce negative rather than positive effects. Also, the consultant must be careful not to get entangled in internal power struggles and be perceived as an instrument of one faction.

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