- •1.1. Definition
- •1.2. Morphological structure of nouns
- •1.3. Classes of nouns
- •1.3.1. Proper vs common nouns
- •1.3.2. Concrete vs abstract nouns
- •1.3.3. Countable vs uncountable nouns
- •1.3.4. Animate vs inanimate
- •1.3.5. Human (person) vs non-human (non-person)
- •1.3.6. Gender
- •1.3.7. Classes of nouns and grammatical categories of nouns
- •1.4. The category of Number
- •1.4.1. The productive way of the number formation
- •1.4.2. The non-productive ways of the number formation
- •1.5. The category of Case
- •1.5.1. Common Case: the syntactic functions of nouns
- •1.5.2. Possessive case
- •1. Write down the plurals of the following nouns and check their pronunciation in a dictionary where necessary:
- •2. Define the morphological structure of the italicized nouns in the texts given below:
- •3. Make up unstable compounds out of the following word-combinations:
- •4. Use the possessive case of the noun instead of the following word-combinations:
- •5. Analyse the italicized nouns in terms of classes and categories in the following extracts:
- •6. Translate the following sentences into English:
- •2.1. Definition
- •2.2. Functions of article
- •2.3. Article and pronoun
- •2.4. Indefinite article: usage
- •2.4.1. Indefinite article before common concrete nouns
- •2.5. Definite article: usage
- •2.5.7. Definite article before common nouns
- •2.5.2. Definite article before proper nouns
- •2.5.3. Definite article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.6. Zero article: usage
- •2.6.1. Zero article before common nouns
- •2.6.2. Zero article before proper nouns
- •2.6.3. Zero article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.7. Article determination of certain noun groups
- •1. Comment on the use of the italicized articles and nouns they determine in the extracts below:
- •2. Compare and explain the use of the italicized articles and nouns they specify in the following groups of sentences:
- •3. Insert proper articles where necessary into the texts below:
- •4. Translate the following texts into English using proper articles:
- •3.1. Definition
- •3.2. Morphological structure of adjectives
- •3.3. Classes of adjectives
- •3.3.1. Qualitative adjectives: the category of comparison
- •Inner — — innermost
- •3.4. Syntactic functions of adjectives
- •2. Give the opposites of the following adjectives by using the correct negative prefix:
- •3. Write down the comparative and superlative degrees of the following adjectives:
- •4. Define the class of the italicized adjectives and their syntactic function in the text given below:
- •5. Insert little or a little and define which part speech they belong to:
- •10. Complete the following with far/farther/farthest, further/furthest:
- •11. Put the words in brackets into the comparative forms:
- •4.1. Definition
- •4.2. Classes of pronouns
- •4.4. Possessive pronouns
- •4.5. Reflexive pronouns
- •4.6. Reciprocal pronouns
- •4.7. Demonstrative pronouns
- •4.8. Interrogative pronouns
- •4.9. Connective pronouns
- •4.9.1. Relative pronouns
- •4.9.2. Conjunctive pronouns
- •4.10. Indefinite pronouns
- •4.11. Defining pronouns
- •4.12. Negative pronouns
- •2. In these sentences change the definite article to the pronoun some and observe the difference in meaning:
- •3. Translate into English using some, any, someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything:
- •4. Give two English variants of each of the following sentences using the pronouns either and both:
- •11. Translate into English using where necessary that, who or what:
- •12. Translate into English using reflexive pronouns:
- •13. Translate into English using one, oneself, one's:
- •5.1. Definition
- •5.2. Classes of numerals
- •5.3. Morphological structure of numbers
- •5.4. Usage
- •5.4.1. Numerals proper
- •5.4.2. Noun-substitutes
- •5.4.3. Substantivized numerals
- •1. Answer the following questions using cardinals:
- •2. Translate into English using cardinals:
- •3. Translate into English using the words dozen, hundred, thousand, million in the proper form:
- •4. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •5. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •6. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •7. Translate into English using fractional numerals:
- •8. Read out the following extracts paying special attention to the italicised numerals:
- •6.1. Definition
- •6.2. Morphological structure of verbs
- •6.3. Finite vs non-finite forms
- •6.4. Syntagmatic functioning of verbs
- •6.5. Conjugation of verbs
- •6.6. Regular vs irregular verbs
- •6.7. Classes of verbs: functions
- •6.8. Be: functions
- •6.9. Have: functions
- •6.10. Do: functions
- •6.11. Shall: Junctions
- •6.12. Will: functions
- •6.13. Should: functions
- •6.14. Would: functions
- •6.15. Modals
- •6.15.1. Modals expressing obligation
- •6.15.2. Modals expressing supposition
- •6.15.3, Modals expressing ability
- •6.75.4. Modals expressine permission.__requests,
- •6.15.5. Modals expressing willingness
- •6.15.6. Semi-defective verbs: need and dare
- •I 6.16. Meaningful verbs: grammatical categories
- •6.16.2. Category of Tense
- •6.16.3. Category of Taxis
- •6.16.4. Category of Aspect
- •6.16.5. Category of Voice
- •6.16.6. Category of Person
- •6.16.7. Category of Number
- •6.16.8. Category of Negation
- •6.16.9. Category of Interrogation
- •Is often a fine month, isn't it? — It isn't cold in October,
- •Is it? Leaves turn red and gold then, don't they? — The
- •I? You will be quick, won't you?
- •6.16.10. The Category of Expressivity
- •6.16.11. The category of Representation
- •6.17.1. Participle
- •6.17.2. Gerund
- •6.17.3. Infinitive
- •2. Define the syntagmatic characteristics of the italicized verbs in the following extracts:
- •3. Define the forms of conjugation of the italicized verbs below:
- •4. Comment upon the functions of be:
- •5. Comment upon the functions of have in the following extracts:
- •6. Comment upon the functions of do in the following extracts:
- •7. Define the meaning of the italicized modals in the extracts below:
- •8. Translate into English using modals of obligation:
- •9. Translate into English using modals of supposition:
- •10. Define the function of shall, will, should, would and the grammatical pattern in the following sentences:
- •11. Analyse the italicised verbal forms in terms of the grammatical categories:
- •12. Comment upon the forms of the participle and its syntactic functions:
- •13. Comment upon the forms of the gerund and its syntactic functions:
- •14. Comment upon the forms of the infinitive and its syntactic functions:
- •75. Define the grammatical status and the syntactic function of the italicised -ing forms in the following extracts:
- •16. State the grammatical status of verbals and their syntactic function in the following extracts:
- •17. Translate into English using the Complex Subject:
- •18. Translate into English using the Complex Object:
- •7.1. Definition
- •7.2. Morphological structure of adverbs
- •7.5.7. Adverbs denoting the quality of an action
- •7.5.2. Adverbs denoting circumstances
- •7.6. Syntactic functions of adverbs
- •1. Comment on the morphological status, lexical class and syntactic function of the italicized adverbs in the sentences below:
- •2. Choose the right word and define the part of speech it belongs to:
- •3. State whether the italicized words in the sentences below are adverbs or prepositions:
- •4. State whether the italicized forms below are prepositional or phrasal verbs:
6.17.2. Gerund
The gerund is a non-finite verbal form which has some common features with the noun.
The gerund is homonymous to the present participle and thus is formed by means of the -ing suffix added to the infinitive without to: being, having, doing, coming, flying, etc.
6.17.2.1. Verbal characterisrics of gerund
Like the present participle the gerund has the same set of forms which is the result of the realization of such categories as Taxis and Voice: 1) active, non-perfect — reading, 2) passive, non-perfect — being read, 3) active, perfect — having read, 4) passive perfect — having been read.
The perfect gerund indicates that the action precedes the action expressed by the finite verb in the sentence. However, the same meaning may be rendered by means of the non-perfect form used as a direct object: He admitted having stolen the money. = He admitted stealing the money. They now regret having got married. = They now regret getting married.
To render finished actions the non-perfect gerund is often used with the prepositions on and after as adverbial modifier: On hearing the news she got pale. On arriving in the city the travellers went to the hotel. After leaving school he went to work at a factory. After looking through the book she gave it back to the shop assistant.
In the above sentences the actions denoted by the gerunds may as well be rendered by means of perfect participles: Having heard the news she got pale. Having arrived in the city the travellers went to the hotel. Having looked through the book she gave it back to the shop assistant.
Passive gerunds can be formed only out of transitive verbs or intransitive verbs with prepositions: She disliked both reading aloud and being read to. He was surprised at being surrounded by his former enemies and being spoken to.
Note that after the verbs to want, to need, to deserve, to require and the adjective worth the gerund is used in the active form, though it is passive in meaning. For example: The flowers need watering. The child deserves praising. The pictures are not worth looking at.
The gerund of a transitive verb can take a direct object: The boy has made progress in reading and speaking English.
The gerund can be modified by an adverb: She is fond of reading aloud. He objected to going there immediately.
6.17.2.2. Gerund and Participle
Although the gerund and the present participle are formally identical, their functions in the language are completely different.
As distinct from the participle the gerund may be preceded by a preposition, it may be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun; it can be used as subject and object. Although both the gerund and the present participle may be used as attributes and adverbial modifiers the gerund in these functions is always preceded by a preposition. Compare: The very idea of sailing makes me sick. — The sailing ship was on its way to the port, (attributes) On coming home he phoned his mother. — Coming home he found the gate open, (adverbial modifiers)
6.17.2.3. Nounal characteristics of gerund
The nounal characteristics of the gerund are realized first and formost in its syntactic functioning as subject, object, and predicative. For example: Reading aloud is dying out these days, (subject) In the silence the boy began reading, (object) His hobby is reading aloud, (predicative)
The gerund can be preceded by a preposition: Without asking for his advice I have taken an important step. On receiving the telegram he went to the station. After stamping the envelope she went to post the letter.
The gerund can be attributed by a possessive pronoun: They didn't approve of his playing a roulette. She was not pleased at my coming. They were surprised at their coming so early.
The gerund can be modified by a noun in the Possessive Case: She was furious at her son's having disobeyed her. I was proud of my sister's dancing so well.
6.17.2.4. Syntactic functions of gerund The gerund is used as
1) subject: Swimming against the current was difficult. Learning rules without examples is useless.
2) predicative: Her aim is learning English grammar. They couldn 't help laughing.
3) direct object: Avoid making mistakes. Excuse my interrupting you. They postponed giving a definite answer. The room needs cleaning.
4) prepositional object: / was never tired of talking to him. She is very good at reciting poems. He was accused of stealing the money. I object to going there.
5) attribute (always with a preposition, mostly of): He gave up the idea of becoming a professional singer. Could you do me a favour of introducing me to you wife?
6) adverbial modifier (always with a preposition): After talking to us for a moment he left to get his train on the other side. She left without saying «goodby». On coming nearer I could recognize my schoolfriend who was buying a newspaper.
6.17.2.4.1. Gerund and infinitive as a direct object
Some verbs and verbal phrases may be followed by 1) gerunds only, 2) by infinitives only (see 6.17.3.2.1.}, and 3) by both gerunds and infinitives.
The verbs that are usually associated with gerunds are: finish, delay, enjoy, mind, suggest, fancy, imagine, admit, deny, avoid, consider, involve, practise, miss, postpone, risk, give up (stop), put off (postpone), carry on (continue), keep or keep on, like, dislike, hate, enjoy, can't stand. For example: / don't fancy going out this evening. Would you mind closing the door? He admitted stealing the car. She gave up trying to find a job. I enjoy meeting people. I can't stand being alone.
Gerunds are used after such verbal expressions as be interested in, be good at, be fed up with, be excited about, be/get used to, it's no use/it's no good, there's no point in, it's (not) worth, go — ing. Are you interested in working for us? He is not very good at learning languages. They are not used to getting up early. I've got used to driving on the left. It's no use worrying about it. The book is not worth reading. I've never been sailing. I have to go shopping everyday.
The gerund is used after prepositional verbs like succeed in, feel like, think about/of, dream of, approve/disapprove of, look forward to, insist on, persist in, decide against, apologise for, accuse somebody of, suspect somebody of, congratulate somebody on, prevent somebody from, thank somebody for, forgive somebody for, warn somebody against. For example: Has he succeeded in finding the job? I'm looking forward to meeting them. He apologised for having been rude. They accused him of
telling lies. They warned us against staying at the hotel. What prevented him from coming to the meeting?
The verbs that may be followed by both gerunds and infinitives without any difference in meaning are as follows: begin, start, intend, continue, love, can't bear. For example: The girl began crying. = The girl began to cry. It has started raining. = It has started to rain. He continued working after his illness. = He continued to work after his illness.
The verbs and verbal phrases that can be used with both gerunds and infinitives with some difference in meaning are as follows: stop, forget, remember, regret, try, be afraid, help. Compare: He stopped to smoke. — He stopped smoking. I remembered to lock the door before I left. — / clearly remember locking the door before I left. I regret to inform you that you are bankrupt. — We've always regretted selling the farm. The two sides are still trying to reach an agreement. — If the car won't start, try pushing it. I was afraid to go out of the house at night. — I'm always afraid of being bitten by dogs. Can you help me (to) move the desk? — We couldn't help laughing at the joke.
6.17.2.5. Gerund and verbal noun
The gerund must not be confused with the verbal noun that has the same -ing suffix. The points of differences between the two are given below.
Like all the verbals the gerund has a double nature — nominal and verbal while the verbal noun has only a nominal character. Besides, the nominal meaning of nouns is much wider since they are intended to name people, objects, states, abstract notions, and actions. Ge-
runds are supposed to name actions only. For example, as a noun teaching means «the work or profession of a teacher» as well as in the plural — teachings denote something which is taught, especially the moral, political, or religious beliefs taught by a person of hisporical importance. Painting is used to refer to the act of painting houses, rooms, etc. and pictures, as well as to a painted picture. As gerunds they denote only actions of teaching and painting correspondingly.
The gerund is not used with articles whereas the verbal noun may be used with an article. For example: We have come to an understanding. I have only a limited understanding of economics. I lent him the money on the understanding that he paid it back the next month.
The gerund has no plural form while the verbal noun (countable) may be used in the plural: Hard work will be the making of him. — She has the makings of a good doctor.
The gerund of a transitive verb takes a direct object whereas the verbal noun takes a prepositional object with the preposition of. Compare: He received so many letters that he gave up reading them. — She tried to pull herself together and get ready to the reading of the letter.
The gerund can be modified by an adverb while the verbal noun may be modified by an adjective. Compare: On the course she got a thorough training in every aspect of the job. — The man insisted on shaking hands enthhu-siastically.