9. Metaphoric tropes (metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole)

Stylistics is a branch of linguistic science dealing with the principles of choice and usage of l-ge means of dif. levels to express thought and emotion in dif. conditions of communication.

Stylistics of resources studies expressive means & Stylistic Devices (SDs) of the l-ge (according to the level of the l-ge – phonetic, morphological, lexical & syntactical SDs)

Lexical SD (LSDs) is a specially patterned l-ge unit, stylistic effects of which are created through specific choice & combination of words & through interaction of their meanings (dictionary and contextual ones). LSDs are also known as tropes. Tropes are based on transference of meaning. When the distance btw. these meanings is so great that it causes an unexpected turn in the recognized logical meanings there is a SD. Acc. to traditional approach LSD is a result of simultaneous realization of 2 lexical meanings of the word (the contextual comes to the foreground, the dictionary – to the background). Psycholinguists state associative fields must be taken into consideration when speaking about tropes.

Dif. types of LSDs, depending on the types of meaning: metaphoric group (metaphor, simile, hyperbole, personification, understatement), metonymic group (metonymy, synecdoche), mixed group (epithet, oxymoron, antonomasia), other Sds (zeugma, irony).

Simile – LSD based on comparison of 2 objects that are viewed as possessing one or more features in common.  Clyde listened like a hunted animal.

Distinction should be made btw. S. as a SD and as a logical comparison.  He’s as clever as his father. In a logical comparison objects belonging to the same class are compared, in simile – to widely different classes.

Structurally simile has 3 components: Tenor – the name of the object described, Vehicle – the name of the object used to describe tenor & Ground – common features of T & V.  The big house (T) was still (explicit G) as a grave (V). Ground may be implicit ( Clyde listened like a hunted animal), we can make it explicit – frightened.

S. has a formal element of comparison: 1) connecting word (like, as, as … as/if/though), 2) the idea of comparison may be expressed morphologically (hooked nose, a bullet-shaped head) 3) lexically (to seem, to resemble, to remind).

S. & other tropes may be classified into: traditional/trite/dead that add to the stock of l-ge phraseology (commonly used, fixed in dictionary)  as busy as a bee, as strong as a horse; genuine/poetic are new, first used  a red face like the full moon.

Metaphor – LSD based on (hidden) comparison, a compressed simile. There is no formal element of comparison. i.e. a joke is a weapon. M.- transference of some quality from 1 subject to another, based on associated likeness btw. 2 objects.  pancake (hot), ball (round) = sun

Characteristic features of metaphor: 1) transference of name from 1 object to another on the basis of the common property, 2) syntactic character of metaphor (existence in context only)  the eye of heaven = sun, 3) extension of words’ combinability i.e.  wrinkles of one’s fate, 4) double vision (contextual, dictionary meanings).

Types of M.: 1) simple/elementary – expressed by one word/word combination in transferred meaning She moused into the room, 2) sustained/prolonged/extended – use of 1 word/word combination in a transferred meaning causes transference of meaning in a number of other words/word combinations  Armies of dark pine-trees march up the slopes in serried ranks, 3) genuine/fresh – absolutely unexpected  the leaves fell sorrowfully, 4) trite/dead (enrich vocabulary of the l-ge) – time-worn  floods of tears, leg of a table.

Personification – consists in ascribing the properties of human or living beings to inanimate objects/things, involves likeness btw. inanimate & animate objects.  the face of London was altered, Death = He.

Hyperbole (overstatement) – exaggerated statement, not meant to be understood literally, but expressing an intensely emotive attitude of the speaker to what he is speaking about. The stylistic effect is due to the illogical character. H. is deeply rooted on folklore.  The girls were dressed to kill; Her family is one aunt about a thousand years old.

A distinction is made btw. logical exaggeration (it’s the happiest day of my life) & H (He’s ugly as the very devil).

Class-n of H: 1) trite/traditional (bored to death), 2) genuine (He was so tall I was not sure he had a face).

Understatement – underrated statement, not meant to be understood literally, signals emotional background of the utterance. Characteristic of British polite speech.  The wind is rather strong instead of there’s a storm outside; Lilliput.