Language and Style
Old English consists of various dialects, but literature needs to treat it as a language. English people get their syntax from the Anglo-Saxons, their preference for and greater ease with nouns, the tendencies to simplify grammar and shorten words, and the "law of recessive accent" -- the tendency to place the accent on the first syllable and to slur over subsequent syllables. (Later words adopted from outside illustrate: "quantité" is anglicanized to "quántity"; "contraire" to "contrary.")
The Anglo-Saxon gods lend their names to days of the week: Tuesday from Tiw, the dark god; Wednesday from Woden, the war god; Thursday from Thor, the thunder god; Friday from Frigga, goddess of the home.
Most Anglo-Saxon poetry emerges from an oral tradition and was meant for mead-hall entertainment. Scops (the poets) and Gleemen (harpists) sung or recited and were the only historians of the time. The poetic structure was based on accent and alliteration (not rhyme and meter), and made use of stock formulae.
Epithets were useful for alliteration, so God could be called "Weard" (guardian) or "Meatod" (measurer) or "Wuldor-Fæder" (glory-father) or "Drihten" (lord) or "Scyppend" (creator) or "Frea" (master), etc. A king could be a "ring-giver" or a "noble lord" or a "righteous guardian." A phrase replaces a simpler name.
Appositions show up as several epithets in a row, and we're even more top-heavy with noun-phrases.
Kennings were poetic phrases consisting of compound metaphors. The sea could be called "the swan's road" or "the whale's way." As mentioned above, women were "cup-bearers" or "peace-weavers."
Litotes refers to ironic understatement, another apparent favorite trope of the Anglo-Saxons in which the affirmative is expressed by the negation of its contrary. "Not easily did I come through it with my life."
Chapter 2: The Normans: special features
Continuing the on-going history of the British Isles, this site looks at the effects and changes brought in by the Norman invasion.
The Normans had an interesting mix of cultures. Historically, they were a combination of Viking settlers who had married into the local Frankish cultures and as a result their society was a conglomerate of the two.
As befits their descendancy from the Vikings, the Normans were a warlike culture and prized mounted soldiers. The Norman cavalry were to form the basis for medieval Knights and what we now look at as "Chivalry" stems from the Norman codes of conduct on the battlefield.
The Normans were more than just mobile killing machines (although they excelled at this), and with their invasion of England they brought in some examples of architecture and style. As they were devout followers of the medieval Christian church, the best examples of Norman style can be found in the churches and chapels that still exist all over the country.
The Normans had a warfare style that evolved from their Norse roots and was heavily influenced by the European wars of the 9th and 10th centuries AD and the Frankish kings like Charlemagne.
The Norman armies were very organized and disciplined. The mainstay of the army was the heavy foot soldier, although the nobles and leaders has powerful horses. During the medieval period the status symbol of horses became firmly rooted and even today people think of owning a horse as having something the "rich" do.
Chapter 3: Norman Conquest
Norman Conquest of England - the invasion of Anglo-Saxons’ lands in 1066 by the army of William the Conqueror. The conquest of England began with the victory of the Normans at the Battle of Hastings, followed by Duke William, who became king of England.