28. Euphemisms and taboo words.

A euphemism (from the Greek words eu - well and pheme - speak) is a word or expression that is used when people want to find a polite or less direct way of talking about difficult or embarrassing topics like death or the bodily functions. Most people, for example, would find it very difficult to say in plain language that they have arranged for their sick old dog to be killed. They would soften the pain by saying: We had Fido put down or We had Fido put to sleep. Many people prefer to call someone plain than ugly, or cuddly rather than fat. As such, euphemisms are an important part of every language, but it seems that English has an ever-growing number of them. The non-native speaker not only has to make sense of the euphemisms he hears, he also has to learn which euphemisms are appropriate in any particular situation. He might be aware that his American friend needs to use the toilet when she asks where the bathroom (or restroom, or comfort station) is, but he is less likely to guess that his English friend has the same need when he says he has to see a man about a dog. He might have learned, for example, that in the family way is a euphemism for pregnant. If he says to his boss, however: Congratulations! I hear your wife is in the family way., he would be using an expression that is too familiar for the circumstances.

aboo words are those that are considered in bad taste by some people or that are better to be avoided because they mention realities that are stark or vulgar. They refer to sex, religion, necessities such as the act of emptying the bladder or the bowels, and so on. Examples: fuck, fornicate, masturbation, prick, cunt, the devil, crap, piss, die, etc. The taboo is a social phenomenon; some terms are therefore regarded as taboo by some people, but not, by others. Let us take the weasel as a case in point. We have a lovely animal in principle, but a farmer may think otherwise because if it eats his chicks and his hen's eggs, he will scream blue murder by the sole fact of hearing its name. Extremely religious people find it impure to speak about things in which blood is involved: labour (birth), menstruation, etc.

28. Phraseology. Principles of classification of phraseological units.

Vinogradov’s classification of phraseological units: a) phraseological combinations - are word - groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be  clearly motivated, that is the meaning of the units can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents. Ex. to be good at smth., to have a bite…. b) unities - are word - groups with a completely changed meaning, that is, the meaning of the unit doesn’t correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts. Ex. to loose one’s head (to be out of one’s mind), to loose one’s heart to smb.(to fall in love). c) fussions - are word - groups with a completely changed meaning but, in contrast to the units, they are demotivated, that is, their meaning can’t be deduced from the meanings of its constituent parts. Ex. to come a cropper(to come to disaster).