Classification of Translation Techniques

Translation techniques are procedures which are used to analyse and classify how translation equivalence works. Translation techniques have five basic characteristics:

1. They affect the result of the translation.

2. They are classified by comparison with the original.

3. They affect micro-units of text.

4. They are by nature discursive (совершаемый путём логических умозаключений) and contextual.

5. They are functional.

The choice of the translation technique depends on:

1) the genre of the text (letter of complaint, contract, tourist brochure, etc.);

2) the type of translation (technical, literary, etc.);

3) the purpose of the translation and the characteristics of the translation audience.

It should be noted that terminological diversity and the overlapping of terms often make it difficult to explain the peculiarities of the process of translation. The same concept can be expressed with different names and the classifications vary, covering different areas of problems.

1. Lexical translation techniques

2. Contextual Replacements

a) lexico-semantic modifications

b) lexico-grammatical transformations

3. Grammatical transformations

1. Lexical Translation Techniques

1	Transcription is a technique based upon phonetic principle. It is mandatory in all the following cases unless there is already a generally accepted translation. 1) proper names (names of people or geographical places); 2) addresses; 3) names of private firms; 4) names of national, private and public institutions unless they are transparent (i.e. clear, understandable); 5) titles of newspapers, periodicals, books, musical compositions. In all the above mentioned cases the translator may add a translation or gloss if he thinks this will help the reader.	Flash mob - флеш-моб Food-court – фуд-корт (ресторанный дворик, расположенный на территории торгового центра, который объединяет и включает в себя операторов фаст-фуда)
2	Transliteration is the practice of transcribing a word or text written in one writing system into another writing system. N.B. Translators often resort to transliteration and naturalization* simultaneously. * Naturalization adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the TL. (Newmark, 1988b:82)	Facilitator - фасилитатор, посредник Insider – инсайдер (лицо, в силу служебного положения располагающее конфиденциальной информацией о делах организации)
3	Semantic translation is the attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.	Home care - медицинская помощь на дому; стационар на дому Densely populated area - густонаселённый район
5	Loan translation (through translation / calque) is the adoption by one language of a phrase or compound word whose components are literal translations of the components of a corresponding phrase or compound in a foreign language. It can be lexical or structural.	Peacemaker – миротворец Hot zone - "горячая" зона, зона переноса (части строк, непосредственно примыкающих к правому краю страницы текста)
6	Mixed translation is represented by the combination of semantic translation + transcription and / or calque.	Constantine the Great - Константин Великий
7	Recognized translation occurs when the translator "normally uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term." (Newmark, 1988b:89) It is usually called the corresponding TL equivalent or established equivalent.	Stakeholder - акционер Fashion designer - модельер
8	Analogous translation = approximate translation is the selection of a synonym that will perfectly fit the context, that is a word or phrase which is clearer to the receptor. In other words analogous translation is used when the terms are very close but there is a slight difference in meaning, which in most cases may be neglected. (Analogue is a word or phrase which is quite close to the SL word meaning, but without complete coincidence.)	Drugstore - аптека, аптекарский магазин (с самым широким ассортиментом товаров, в т.ч. туалетными и канцелярскими принадлежностями, мороженым, кофе, журналами) аптека - chemist's (shop) аптека, аптекарский магазин (торгует лекарствами, косметикой и средствами личной гигиены) Punch - Панч (традиционный персонаж английского кукольного театра; аналог русского Петрушки) Judy Punch and Judy show - "Панч и Джуди" (кукольное уличное представление)
9	Footnote (or translator’s commentary) is a technique that has two main functions: 1) to correct linguistic and cultural differences, e.g., to explain contradictory customs, to identify unknown geographical or physical items, to give equivalents for weights and measures, to explain word play, to add information about proper names, etc.; 2) to add additional information about the historical and cultural context of the text in question.	A haunting case of such an overshoot took place on St. Matthew Island in the Bering Sea in 1944 when 29 reindeer were imported. В памяти то и дело всплывает случай подобного овершута (т.е. превышения потенциала действия над потенциалом покоя), когда в 1944 году на остров Святого Матфея завезли 29 северных оленей. (Translator’s commentary) University professors sing the praises of Einstein, Socrates, and occasionally a more prestigious version of ‘Mr. Chips’. Преподаватели университетов прославляют Эйнштейна, Сократа, а иногда и более престижный пример для подражания - мистера Чипса*. (Footnote) *Мистер Чипс - центральный персонаж книги Дж. Хилтона [Hilton, James] " До свидания, мистер Чипс" [" Goodbye, Mr. Chips"] (1935) и одноименного фильма по ней (1939); учитель латыни, отдающий все силы и любовь своим ученикам. Синоним учителя, преданного своему делу.