1) On Showing-Off.

In childhood, showing-off takes simple direct forms. A child asking you to look at him as he stands on his head expects (and usually gets) immediate praise. As we grow older we seem to get more cunning in our efforts to draw the attention of others to ourselves. Only a professional acrobat has to go to the length of standing on his head to win applause. Adults are capable of the subtlest forms of self-dispraise when they want to boast about their achievements. ...

2) On Standing In a Queue.

As soon as we take our place in a queue, our whole outlook on life changes. All we can think about is how many people there are in front of us and how long it will be before our turn comes. Now and then we look back and feel a warm glow of satisfaction when we note how much the queue has lengthened since we joined it. Our main concern, however, is that no one should use unfair means. We keep a watchful eye on the people in front and are ready to denounce publicly anyone who dares to "jump the queue". ...

(from Essay and Letter Writing by L. G. Alexander)

Exercise 3/2 Write an essay on one of the following subjects:

1. Tourism. 2. On answering children's questions. 3. On wearing glasses. 4. On reading detective stories.

Now here is an example of an argumentative essay.

The advantages and disadvantages of living in the twentieth century

The advantages of living in the twentieth century are clear to anyone who spends time in one of the world's highly devel­oped nations. The disadvantages of modern life, however, are sometimes not so quickly seen. Consider the average man today in contrast with man 200 years ago. Without doubt, man's life has been eased considerably. Machines now perform for him many of the services that he previously had to do for himself. They cut his grass, wash his car, open and close his doors, walk for him, climb stairs for him, serve him coffee, and both put him to sleep and wake him up to music. In two major areas — transportation and communications—great progress has been made. Mass publishing practices have spread newspapers, magazines, and paperback books around the globe. Relayed across oceans by Telstar satellites, television informs and entertains peo­ple in every hemisphere. Mail moves swiftly and efficiently; tele­phone cables connect all continents. More than any other single Invention, the gasoline engine has revolutionized modern life. City streets, clogged with automobile traffic tell us that. More recent discoveries have led to the surge of jet and supersonic plane travel. Even as man darts throughout the world, he is protected from di­sease as no man before him has been, and he can look forward to living a longer life than his grandfather did. Furthermore, man now commands a more plentiful supply of the world's goods. He may own not only a car and a home but also a stove, a refrig­erator, a washing machine, books, phonograph records and cameras. Even his old age is better provided for through pen­sion and retirement plans offered by the government and by industry. Thus the advantages of living in the twentieth century are many.

In contrast, one finds that progress can also have its draw­backs. It is true that today man moves more swiftly through the world. But in doing so, he often loses track of the roots and traditions that give substance and meaning to life. Nor does the fact that he is better informed through television, radio, newspapers, and books necessarily mean that he is wiser than men of earlier generations. Instead, the ease with which the written and spoken words are produced today sometimes seems to lead to superficiality of thought. Although man* has been given the gift of leisure and a longer life, he has become more restless and is often uncomfortable when he is not working. Flooded with goods and gadgets, he finds his appetite for mate­rial things increased, not satisfied. Man invented machines to replace his servants. But some current observers feel that man is in danger of becoming the servant of his machines. Mass production lowered the cost of many products, but as. prices went down, quality also often decreased. Another distress­ing aspect of modern life is its depersonalization. In many offices, automation is beginning to replace human workers. Some colleges identify students not by their names, but by their IBM numbers. Computers are winning the prestige that philos­ophers had in an earlier age. The frenzied pace in many cities is another of the less attractive by-products of an industrial society. Soon, man may even fall victim to the subtle loss of privacy that threatens him. Even today, he can be watched on closed circuit television screens as he walks in stores and hotels. He may be tracked by radar while driving on the highway or listened to by means of a microphone concealed in his heat­ing system. He might even be sharing his telephone conversa­tion with an unknown auditor. Certainly many problems face men living in the most technologically advanced era in history. As old enemies have been overcome, new enemies come into view, just like the old ones. Yet if modern man remains the master of his own fate, he can still fashion a satisfying life in this fast-moving century.

(from American English Rhetoric by Robert G. Bander)

Note. Bear in mind that in this discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of living in the 20th century, the author draws on facts characterizing the life in technologically advanced capitalist countries in general, and the USA in particular.

COMMENTS

The model essay provides another example of development by analysis, that is, by breaking down the subject-matter into separate points and arranging these points in a suitable order.

The structure of the model essay has, however, one peculiarity which we have not discussed so far. The essay consists of two contrasting sections, the first dealing with the advantages of living in the 20th century, and the second mainly discussing its dis­advantages. This method of organizing the subject-matter is generally known as analytical development by contrast.

The main problem which arises when you organize your pros and cons in separate sections is that in the second part you will have to remind your readers occasionally of the items con­tained in the first part. There are a number of such references in the model essay: "It is true that today man moves more swiftly through the world"; "Nor does the fact that he is better in­formed ..."; "Although man has been given the gift of leisure and a longer life ...", etc. If you remove these references, you will see at once why they are necessary: they establish a firm con­nection between the contents of the two parts of the essay, and, moreover, help the author to put his arguments more forcefully.

Another way of organizing similar material would be by contrasting pairs, instead of sections, throughout the composi­tion. Here, for example, is a short extract from Anthony Trol-lope's essay in which he discusses some differences he has ob­served between Americans and Englishmen:

"The American, though he dresses like an Englishman, and eats roast beef with a silver fork — or sometimes with a steel knife — as does an Englishman, is not like an Englishman in his mind, in his aspirations, in his tastes, or in his politics. In his mind he is quicker, more universally intelligent, more am­bitious of general knowledge, less indulgent of stupidity and ignorance in others, harder, sharper, brighter with the surface brightness of steel, than is an Englishman; but he is more brit­tle, less enduring, less malleable, and I think less capable of impressions. The mind of the Englishman has more imagina­tion, but that of the American more incision. The American is a great observer, but he observes things material rather than things social or picturesque. He is a constant and ready specu­lator, but all speculations, even which come of philosophy, are with him more or less material ..."

(The Englishman and the American by Anthony Trollope)

Note that Trollope's opening sentence not only indicates how the work will be organized, but also tells you on what is­sues the Americans and the English will be contrasted: their minds, their aspirations, their tastes, and their politics.

Both methods of analytical development by contrast may be successfully used in dealing with a wide range of subjects, for example, in characterizing a person, in describing an abstract concept, an unfamiliar object or situation. Of all the means of development, development by contrast is one of the most force­ful.

(Based on Robert G. Bander's analyses in American English Rhetoric)

Exercise 4. Write an essay on one of the following subjects:

1) The advantages and disadvantages of living in the country (in a town). 2) The pros and cons of television. 3) Architecture: old and new. 4) On not having a telephone (advantages and disadvantages). 5) On not knowing how to cook (advantages and disadvantages).

Summary Writing

A summary is a brief account giving the main points of a matter. Summarizing, or making a summary, is necessary in a variety of everyday situations. You will need the ability to summarize when you answer an examination question, when you make notes at a lecture or write a business letter, prepare a paper based on collected material or write down a recipe for a honey cake.

In written practice, summarizing is training in style, its ultimate aim being the ability to present ideas, clearly and concisely expressed, in a logical and readable form. There are two types of summarizing: 1) free summarizing, and 2) précis-writing.

I. The free summary is an outline of some broad topic con­taining only the essential points and expressed in the minimum number of words. One of its varieties is the synopsis, i. e., the summary of a book usually standing at the beginning of the book to tell the reader what it is about.

Below is a very brief outline of the plot of the film Things to Come (1936) based on H. G. Wells' book The Shape of Things to Come: The Ultimate Revolution.

"The film depicts a ghastly world war, beginning in 1940 and lasting for a quarter of a century — by which time the Dark Ages have returned. Ultimately humanity is saved by a group of technocrats who succeed in restoring order and paving the way for progress. By the 21st century, the world is a technical para­dise — but there is trouble in this paradise. The trashy, ever-romantic populace craves excitement, having found progress incompatible with happiness. In the end, the first moon shot is carried out as a means of reminding mankind that its real task is not flabby self-satisfaction, but rather the disciplined con­quest of the unknown." (107 words)

Here is an example of a synopsis: (H. G. Wells. The Invisible Man.)

The fanatical, ghoulish and triumphant researches of a student of chemistry obsessed with the idea that it is possible for human beings to be made invisible. (26 words)

II. Précis-writing, a more formal type of exercise consists of summarizing the contents of a paragraph, a passage, a chap­ter, or of a letter, a document, but not of a full-length book. It involves a close study of a piece of prose and setting forth of everything of importance in it in a third or a quarter of the existing length.

It should be understood from the outset that a précis does not express the "thought" of a passage, for the "thought" can­not be divorced from the words and, consequently, the passage cannot be expressed more concisely than its original length. The précis involves the summarizing of the gist of a passage and the exclusion of minor points. It is essential, therefore, that you should understand completely every shade of meaning in the passage to be dealt with. The finished summary effectively shows any vagueness in the understanding of the passage. Conversely, a good précis is a sign of a good brain.

Another important point to note at once is that you should use only the information taken from the passage. Do not in­clude ideas you would yourself have expressed on the same subject.

The passages offered as a first step are provided with ques­tions. The answers, if given correctly, will bring out the main points of the text. You are advised to observe the following rules: (1) the answers must be written within the number of words indicated. (Remember that articles and prepositions are also words!) (2) no introductions or conclusions are to be made; (3) express your answers in your own words as far as possible, but if the words of the original, carefully selected, come more easily, by all means use them; (4) there is no room in a summary for repetition and circumlocutions; avoid wordy phrases containing colourless words like character, nature, case, manner, kind, sort, for example, of a courageous character for courageous or brave, of various kinds for various, different, in many instances/cases for often, in spite of the fact that for although and so on.

The passage that follows can serve as a model.