Word study

I. GIVE RUSSIAN EQUIVALENTS FOR THE FOLLOW­ ING ENGLISH WORDS:

To strive; vogue; to take up; mainstream; to draw upon; credential; to lack; proliferation; to suit; to constrain; scope; entity; obsession; to incline; to discard; to contaminate; to compete; to stand for; to revive.

II. GIVE ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS FOR: Движущая сила исторического развития; с точки

зрения доказательства; поведение избирателей; отвер­нуться от традиции нормативной политической мыс-

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ли; неподдающиеся эмпирической проверке сущности; вызывать сомнение; через механизм всенародных вы­боров.

III. ARRANGE THE FOLLOWING WORDS IN THE PAIRS OF SYNONYMS.

scope notion

to attempt to diminish

to uncover sphere

to predict to disclose

to test to try

to reduce important

concept to forecast

significant to verify

IV. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES INTO RUSSIAN PAYING ATTENTION TO THE ADJECTIVES WITH THE SUFFIX «-ABLE» MEANING «THAT CAN OR MAY BE DONE».

1. It was a dirty road and was usable only six months a

year.

2. All this was understandable.

3. A person with a sense of humour is a lovable and

loving person.

4. It may be advisable to go there.

5. They used only quantifiable data.

V. FIND SENTENCES WITH THE SAME ADJECTIVES IN THE TEXT AND TRANSLATE THEM IN WRITING.

VI. DISCUSSION

Science, scientism

Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning 'knowledge') is a field of study that aims to develop reliable explana­tions of phenomena through repeatable experiments, ob­servation and deduction. The 'scientific method', by which

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hypotheses are verified (proved true) by testing them against the available evidence , is therefore seen as a means of disclosing value-free and objective truth. Karl Popper (1902-1994), however, suggested that science can only fal­sify hypotheses, since 'facts' may always be disproved by later experiments. Scientism is the belief that the scien­tific method is the only source of reliable knowledge, and so should be applied to fields such as philosophy, history and politics, as well as the natural sciences. Doctrines such as Marxism, utilitarianism and racialism are scientistic in this sense.

VII. LOOK THROUGH THE TEXT «RECENT DEVELOP­ MENTS» AND MAKE UP AN OUTLINE.

VIII. GIVE A SUMMARY OF THE TEXT

IX. LOOK THROUGH THE TEXT AND ANSWER THE QUESTIONS. WORDS GIVEN BELOW AND NOTES MAY BE HELPFUL.

Recent Developments

Amongst recent theoretical approaches to politics is what is called formal political theory, variously known as 'politi­cal economy', 'public-choice theory' and 'rational-choice theory'. This approach to analysis draws heavily upon the example of economic theory in building up models based upon procedural rules, usually about the rationally self-interested behaviour of the individuals involved. Most firmly established in the USA, and associated in particular with the so-called Virginia School, formal political theory pro­vides at least a useful analytical device which may provide insights into the actions of voters, lobbyists, bureaucrats and politicians, as well as into the behaviour of states with-in the international system. This approach has had broad­est impact on political analysis in the form of what is called institutional public-choice theory.

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By no means, however, has the rational-choice approach to political analysis been universally accepted. While its supporters claim that it introduces greater rigour into the discussion of political phenomena, critics have questioned its basic assumptions. It may, for instance, overestimate human rationality in that it ignores the fact that people seldom possess a clear set of preferred goals and rarely make decisions in the light of full and accurate knowledge. Furthermore, in proceeding from an abstract model of the individual, rational-choice theory pays insufficient attention to social and historical factors, failing to recog­nize, amongst other things, that human self-interested-ness may be socially conditioned, and not merely innate. As a result, a variety of approaches have come to be adopted for the study of politics as an academic discipline. This has made modern political analysis both richer and more diverse. To established normative, institutional and be­havioural approaches have been added not only rational-choice theory, but also, more recently, feminism and dis­course theory. In particular, political philosophy and po­litical science are now less likely to be seen as distinct modes of enquiry, and still less as rivals. Instead, they have come to be accepted simply as contrasting ways of disclosing political knowledge. Notes:

Discourse: Human interaction, especially communica­tion; discourse may disclose or illustrate power relation­ships.

impact - influence rigour - точность innate - врожденный rival - соперник

1. What new theoretical approaches emerged?

2. Where was rational — choice theory developed?

3. What does it provide?

4. How do the supporters estimate it?

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5. Why do critics question its basic assumptions?

6. What other new theories emerged?

7. What conclusion does the author come to?

X. IN CONCLUSION SUM UP THE MAIN APPROACH­ES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICS.

UNIT VIII

I. READ AND TRANSLATE

Can the Study of Politics Be Scientific?

Although it is accepted that the study of politics should be scientific in the broad sense of being rigorous and criti­cal, some have argued, as has been pointed out, that it can be scientific in a stricter sense, that is, that it can use the methodology of the natural sciences. This claim has been advanced by Marxists and by positivist social scientists, and it was central to the 'behavioural revolution' of the 1950s. The attraction of a science of politics is clear. It promises an impartial and reliable means of distinguishing 'truth' from 'falsehood', thereby giving us access to objec­tive knowledge about the political world. The key achieving this is to distinguish between 'facts' (empirical evidence) and 'values' (normative or ethical beliefs). Facts are objec­tive in the sense that they can be demonstrated reliably and consistently; they can be proved. Values, by contract, are inherently subjective, a matter of opinion.

However, any attempt to construct a science of politics must confront three difficulties. The first of these is the problem of data. For better or worse, human beings are not tadpoles that can be taken into a laboratory or cells that can be observed under a microscope. We cannot get 'inside' a human being, or carry out repeatable experiments on human behaviour. What we can learn about individual behaviour is therefore limited and superficial. In the absence

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of exact data, we have no reliable means of testing our hypotheses. The only way round the problem is to ignore the thinking subject altogether by subscribing to the doc­trine of determinism. One example would be behaviourism (as opposed to behaviouralism), the school of psychology associated with John B. Watson (1878-1958) and B.F. Skin­ner (1904-90). This holds that human behaviour can ulti­mately be explained in terms of conditioned reactions or reflexes. Another example is 'dialectical materialism', the crude form of Marxism that dominated intellectual enquiry

in the USSR.

Secondly, there are difficulties that stem from the existence of hidden values. The idea that models and theories of politics are entirely value-free is difficult to sustain when examined closely. Facts and values are so closely intertwined that it is often impossible to prize them apart. This is because theories are invariably constructed on the basis of assumptions about human nature, human society, the role of the state and so on that have hidden political and ideo­logical implications. A conservative value bias, for example, can be identified in behaviouralism rational-choice theories and systems theory. Similarly, feminist political theories are rooted in assumptions about the nature and significance of gender divisions.

Thirdly, there is the myth of neutrality in the social sciences. Whereas natural scientists may be able to approach their studies in an objective and impartial manner, holding no presuppositions about what they are going to discover, this is difficult and perhaps impossible to achieve in poli­tics. However politics is defined, it addresses questions re­lating to the structure and functioning of the society in which we live and have grown up. Family background, so­cial experience, economic position, personal sympathies and so on thus build into each and every one of us a set of preconceptions about politics and the world around us. This means that scientific objectivity, in the sense of absolute

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impartiality or neutrality, must always remain an unachie­vable goal in political analysis however rigorous our re­search methods may be. Perhaps the greatest threat to the accumulation of reliable knowledge thus comes not from bias as such, but from the failure to acknowledge bias, re­flected in bogus claims to political neutrality.

II. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS.

1. What is the reason of the attraction of a science of politics?

2. Do any scientists question the claim that politics can be scientific in a stricter sense?

3. Where do they see the key to achieving objective knowledge about politics?

4. Who believes that politics can be scientific?

5. What difficulties do political scientists face?

6. Why does the problem of data arise?

7. Where do the scientists see the way round the problem?

8. Where does the second difficulty stem from?

9. What is the third difficulty?

10. When does the author see the greatest threat to the accumulation of reliable knowledge about politics?

III. CONTRADICT THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS:

1. The study of politics has nothing to do with the methodology of the natural sciences.

2. The science of politics gives an access to subjective knowledge about the political world.

3. While constructing a science of politics one never confronts any difficulties.

4. The doctrine of determinism is the only rational theory whenever we treat the problems of political science.

5. The models and theories of politics are entirely value- free.

6. The idea of neutrality very ideally pertains to politi­ cal science.

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Part

IV. FIND IN THE TEXT SOME FACTS TO PROVE

THAT:

1. The study of politics can be scientific in a stricter

sense.

2. Any attempt to construct a science of politics must

confront three difficulties.

3. Politics addresses questions relating to the structure and functioning of the society.

5. DIVIDE THE TEXT INTO LOGICAL PARTS AND MAKE UP AN OUTLINE OF THE TEXT.

6. FIND IN THE TEXT PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS AND TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES INTO RUSSIAN.

VII. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING DEFINITION OF «DETERMINISM» INTO ENGLISH.

Determinism — убеждение, что действия человека и его выбор полностью обусловлены внешними факторами. Детерминизм полагает, что свободная воля — это миф.