Atmosphere

Atmosphere is a gaseous envelope (оболочка) surrounding (окружающая) a star, a planet or a satellite. Whether such a body can retain an atmosphere permanently (постоянно) depends chiefly (главным образом) on its mass, size and surface temperature. The molecules in a gas appear to be in constant motion, with their average speed increasing as the temperature increases. At any moment, a proportion (часть) of these molecules will be moving away from the surface of the body, and those whose, speed is greater than the escape velocity (скорость отрыва) for the particular (конкретный) star or planet will leave it altogether (вообще; навсегда) and drift (to drift – зд. уноситься) into interstellar space. Thus (таким образом), a small light body will constantly lose (терять) some of its atmosphere unless its surface is so cold that (пока его поверхность не станет настолько холодной, что...) virtually (фактически; в конечном счете) no molecules can reach escape velocity.

A more massive body may actually (фактически) increase its atmosphere by the reverse (обратный) process: while traveling through space, it sweeps up (захватывает) interstellar matter (материя; вещество) by its gravitational attraction (притяжение), and this is added to its atmosphere. Out of the 31 satellites existing in our solar system the only (единственный) one known to have an atmosphere is Saturn's Titan.

The Moon may posses a very thin (разреженный) atmosphere made up of argon and other chemically inert gases. In its younger days, however, the Moon is likely to have had appreciable (значительный, существенный, заметный) atmosphere but we have no justification (зд основание) to assume that this atmosphere was similar in composition to (похожий на) ours. Now most of any fomier (бывший, прежний) atmosphere has leaked away (to leak - протекать, просачиваться) into space.

That Mars has a gaseous mantle (оболочка; «рубашка») is known. It was revealed as long as (еще в...) 1784. On the other hand (с другой стороны), the mere existence (само существование) of the atmosphere does not mean that the planet may prove (может оказаться) suitable (пригодный) for an earthman (землянин) to breathe (дышать) therb.

The small escape velocity of tile planet - only a little over 5 miles a second - seems to indicate an atmosphere of less density than ours. The air of Mars proves to be thinner than that on top of mount Everest.

Cybernetics Applied to (применительно к...) Space

Cybernetics is the study (учение; наука) of control (управление) and communication (связь) mechanisms in machines and animals. It covers (to cover - покрывать; охватывать) all automatic control devices; selectors, relays, computers and robots, and also the corresponding physiological mechanisms such as those of automatic balance and reflex action (рефлекторная деятельность). The application of cybernetics to electronic computers is stated (to state - утверждать) to be leading to (to lead to - вести к...) a better understanding of the working of the brain, and conversely (и наоборот) a deeper knowledge of the "human mechanism" is expected (to expect - ожидать, предполагать) to lead to the development of machines of almost human capabilities (capability -). It is known that (известно, что...) the Russian scientists have been making a close (зд тщательный, подробный) study of the implications (выводы) of this work in astronautics and the results may be applied to the problems of spacecraft control and the remote (дальний; дистанционный) analysis of the planets.

Cybernetics has brought about (to bring about - вызывать (к жизни), быть (стать) (причиной)) a revolution in the design (проектирование; разработка) of machines. By revealing (to reveal - обнаруживать, показывать) the profound (глубокий, полный) analogy between the work of the computer and the work of the control system of the living organism, cybernetics has brought (to bring - приносить; зд давать) a new approach (подход, метод) to investigations (исследования) in biology and medicine.

Cybernetics has been a great assistance (помощь) in the pre-flight training of cosmonauts. Besides making it possible (to make it possible - давать возможность, делать возможным) to design various automatic simulators (simulator - тренажер, моделирующая установка), the science has given experts in space medicine methods for the exact (точный) analysis of all the physiological processes taking place (to take place - иметь место; происходить) in the human body under different conditions. The results of this analysis have made it possible to draw up (составлять) a list (перечень) of requirements (требования) which must be met (to meet requirements - удовлетворять требованиям) by the spaceship, and it has also been possible to select the people best fitted (пригодный для) to travel (совершать полет) into space.

It is quite obvious (совершенно очевидно) that much greater accuracy (точность) is required in controlling the course of a rocket for a flight to other planets than that required for launching (to launch -запускать) an artificial Earth satellite. What is more important (но что более важно), the very character (сам характер) of control of the spaceship during interplanetary flight must differ in principle from the techniques (technique - метод, способ (исполнения чего-л.)) used for controlling orbital flights. The distances between the Earth and even the nearest planets are measured (to measure - измерять) in millions, not hundreds, of miles. Under these conditions the fact that signals transmitted (to transmit - передавать) from Earth to the interplanetary ships and back will be subject to (быть подверженным чему-то; испытывать (какое-либо воздействие (влияние)) considerable delay (задержка, запаздывание) will be of particular importance (иметь особенно важное значение). The speed with which such signals travel (to travel - проходить, распространяться (о сигналах, волнах)) cannot exceed (to exceed - превышать) the velocity of light that exceeds 186^000 miles/sec. Although (хотя) that is a very high velocity, under the conditions of interplanetary flight, it is insufficient (недостаточный) to permit (позволять, обеспечивать) control of the spaceship from Earth. This extremely (очень) difficult problem can be solved through (благодаря) the application of cybernetics.