Author's acknowledgments

this book was written in America during the Second World War. But it was begun and finished in England, where the author was Lecturer for the Extramural Delegacy of the University of Oxford and the corresponding institutions of the University of London. Its main thesis was developed during the academic year 1939-40 in conjunction with his work in Tutorial Classes, organized by the Workers' Educa­tional Association, at Morley College, London, at Canterbury and at BexhiU.

The story of this book is a story of generous friendships. Very much is due to the author's English friends, notably Irene Grant, with whose group he was associated. Common studies linked him to Felix Schafer of Vienna, an economist, at present in Wellington, New Zealand. In America John A. Kouwenhoven helped as a trusted friend with reading and editing; many of his suggestions have been incorporated in the text. Among other helpful friends were the author's Bennington col­leagues) Horst Mendershausen and Peter F. Drucker. The latter and his wife were a source of sustained encouragement, notwithstanding their wholehearted disagreement with the author's conclusions; the former's general sympathy added to the usefulness of his advice. The author also owes thanks for a careful reading to Hans Zeisel of Rutgers University. The book was seen through the press entirely by Kouwen­hoven, with the help of Drucker and Mendershausen, for which act of friendship the author feels deeply grateful.

To the Rockefeller Foundation he is indebted for a two-year Fel­lowship, i94-i-43> which permitted him to complete the book at Ben­nington College, Vermont, following an invitation extended to him by Robert D. Leigh, then president of that college. Plans for the work were advanced by a series of public lectures and a seminar held during the academic year 1940-41- Research facilities were kindly granted by the Library of Congress in Washington, D. G., as well as by the Selig-man Library of Columbia University, New York. To all of them his thanks are due.

K.P. Shoreham, Sevenoaks, Kent.

[317]

1 Sontag, R. J., European Diplomatic History, 1871-1933, l933

2 Fell H. Europe,-the World's Banker, 1870-1 874, 1930) work we have often textually followed.

3 Feis, H. op. cit., p. 201.

4 Cf. Notes on Sources, page 264.

5 Hershey, A. S., Essentials of International Public Law and Organization, 1927, PP. 565-69.

6 Eulenburg, F„ Aussenhandel and Aussenhandelspotitik. In "Grundriss der Sozialokonornik," Abt. VIII, 1929, P- 209.

1 Tawney, R, H„ The Agrarian Problem in the i6th Century, 1912

2 Gibbins, H. de B., The Industrial History of England, 1895.

3 Innes, A. D„ England under the Tudors, 1932.

4 Gairdner, J., "Henry VIII," Cambridge Modern History, Vol. II, 1913.

5 Heckscher, E. F., Mercantilism, 1935, P. 104.

6 Clapham, J. H„ Economic History of Modern Britain, Vol. III.

1 Cf. Note» on Sources, page 269. The works of Malinowski and Thurnwald have been extensively used in this chapter.

1 Cf. Notes on Sources, page 274.

2 Hawtrey, G. R„ The Economic Problem, 1925, p. 15- "The practical applica­tion of the principle of individualism is entirely dependent on the practice of ex­change." Hawtrey, however, was mistaken in assuming that the existence of market» simply followed from the practice of exchange.

3 Thurnwald, R. C., Economics in Primitive Communitiel, 1931, p. 147.

4 Pirenne, H„ Medieval Cities, 19251 P- 148 (footnote 12).

5 Firth, R„ Primitive Polynesian Economics, 1939, P. 347.

6 Thurnwald, R. C., op. cit., p. 162-164.

7 Our presentation follows H. Pirenne's well-known works.

8 Montesquieu, L'Esprit des tois, 1748. "The English constrain the merchant. but it is in favor of commerce."

1 Henderson, H. D., Supply and Demand, 1922. The practice of the market is twofold: the apportionment of factors between different uses, and the organizing of the forces influencing aggregate supplies of factors.

2 Hawtrey, G. R., op. cit. Its function is seen by Hawtrey in making "the rela­tive market values of all commodities mutually consistent."

3 Marx's assertion of the fetish character of the value of commodities refers to the exchange value of genuine commodities and has nothing in common with the fictitious commodities mentioned in the text.

4 Cunningham, W„ "Economic Change," Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I,

1 Meredith, H. O., Outlines of the Economic History of England, 1908.

1 Martineau, H., The Hamlet, 1833.

2 Professor Usher puts the date of the beginning of general urbanization about 1795.

3 Martineau, H., History of England During the Thirty Years' Peace (1816-1846), 1849.

4 Martineau, H,, The Parish, 1833.

1 M'Farlane J/ Enquiries Concerning the Poor, 1782. Cf. also Poatlethwayt'8 editorial remark in the Universal Dictionary of 1757 on the Dutch Poor Law of 7th October, 1531.

2 Bentham, J., Pauper Management. First published l797.

1 Cf. Antonio de Ulloa, Wafer, William Funnell, as well as Isaac James (which also contains Captain Wood Rogers' account on Alexander Selkirk) and the obser­vation» of Edward Cooke.

2 Webb, S. and B., English Local Government, Vols. VII-IX, "Poor Law History."

3 Bentham, J., Principles of Civil Code, Ch. 4- (Bowring, Vol. I, p. 333.)

4 Bentham, J., ibid.

5 Bentham, J., Observation on the Poor Bill, 1797.

6 Bentham, J„ Principles of Civil Code, p. 314.

7 1832.

8 Stephen, Sir L., The English Utilitarians, 1900.

9 Mantoux P. L„ The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century 1928.

1¹⁰ Cannan, E., A Review of Economic Theory, 1930.

1¹¹ Hazlitt, W., A Reply to the Essay on Population by the Rev. T. A Malthut in a Series of Letters. 1804.

1¹² Ricardo, D„ Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (ed. Conner, 1929, P. 86).

1 Webb, S. and B., op. cit.

2 Redlich and Hirst, J„ Local Government in England, Vol. II, p. 240, quoted Dicey, A. V., Law and Opinion in England, p. 305.

3 Ilbert, Legislative Methods, pp. a 12-3, quoted Dicey, A. V., op. cit.

4 Spencer, H., The Man vs. the State, 1884.

1 Marx, K„ Nationalokonomie und Philosophie. In "Der Historische Materialismus," 1932.

2 Millin, Mrs. S. G„ The South Africans. 1926.

3 Goldenweiser, A., Anthropology, 1937.

4 Goldenweiser, A., ibid.

5 Thurnwald, R. C., Black and White in East Africa; The Fabric of a New Civilization, 1935.

1 Mair, L. P., An African People in the Twentieth Century, 1934.

2 Loeb, E. M., The Distribution and Function of Money in Early Society. In "Essays in Anthropology," 1936.

3 Herskovits, M. J„ The Economic Life of Primitive Peoples, 1940.

4 Thurnwald, R. C., op. cit.

5 Brinkmann, C„ "Das Soziale System de» Kapitalismus," Grundrisi der Sozial-okonomik, 1924.

6 Toynbee, A., Lectures on the Industrial Revolution, 1887, p. 98.

7 Heclischer, E. F., op. cit.. Vol. II, p. 168.

8 Dicey, A. V., op. cit., p. 226.

9 Cole, G. D. H., Robert Owen, 1925, a work on -which we have heavily drawn.

1¹⁰ More, H., The Lancashire Colliery Girl, May, 1795; cf. Hammond, J, L. and B., The Town Labourer, 1917, P- 230.

1¹¹ Cf. Drucker, P. F., The End of Economic Man, 1939, p. 93, in the English Evangelicals; and The future of Industrial Man, 1942, PP. 21 and 194 on statue and function.

1¹² Knowles, L., The Industrial and Commercial Revolution in Great Britain During the 19th Century, 1926.

1 Brinkmann, C„ "Das soziale System des Kapitalismus," Crundriss der Socialokonomik, 1924.

2 Dicey, A. V., op.. cit., p. 226.

3 Ohlin, B., Interregional and International Trade, 1935, P. 42.

4 Bucher, K., Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft, 1904. Cf. also Penro»e, E. P., Population Theories and Their Application, 19341 quotes Longficid, 1834, for the first mention of the idea that movements of commodities may be regarded as substi­tutes for movements of the factors of production.

5 Borkenau, F The Totalitarian Enemy, 1939, Chapter "Towards Collectivism."

6 Hawtrey, R. G., The Economic Problem, 1933.

7 Trevelyan, G. M„ History of England, 1926, p. 533. "England under Walpole, was still an aristocracy, tempered by rioting." Hannah More's "repository" song, "The Riot" was written "in ninety-five, a year of scarcity and alarm"—it was the year of Speenhamland. Cf. The Repository Tracts, Vol. I, New York, 1835. Also The Library, 1940. fourth series. Vol. XX, p. 295, on "Cheap Repository Tracts (1795-98)."

8 Hayes, C., A Generation of Materialism, 1870-1890, remarks that "most of the individual states, at least in Western and Central Europe, now possessed a seemingly superlative internal stability."

1 The underlying theory has been elaborated by F. Schafer, Wellington. New Zealand.

1 Penrose, E. F., op. cit. The Malthusian law is valid only under the assumption that the supply of land is limited.

2 Carr, E. H„ The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919—1939, 1940.

1 Haberler. G.. Der internationale Handel, 1933, p. vi.

2 G. D. H. Cole calls the seventies "by far the most active period for social legislation of the entire 19th century."

1 Hadley, А. Т., Economics: An Account of the Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare, 1896.

2 Bentham, J., Manual of Political Economy, p. 44, on inflation as "forced frugality"; p. 45 (footnote) as "indirect taxation." Cf. also Principles of Civil Code, Ch. 15.

3 Polanyi, K., "Der Mechanismus der Weltwirtschaftsicrise." Der Ofterreichische Volkswirt, 1933 (Supplement).

1 Polanyi, K„ "The Essence of Fascism." In Christianity and the Social Revolution, 1933.

2 Heymann, H., Plan for Permanent Peace, 1941. Ct. Bruning's letter of Janu­ary 8th, 1940

3 Rauschning, H., The Voice of Destruction, 1940.

4 British Blue Book, No. 74. Cmd. 6106, 1939.