1.2 Stylistic devices

Now you can see some of the most important stylistic devices (also called rhetorical devices or figures of speech) – they are not only useful for analysing texts, but also for creating your own texts. Stylistic devices make your speeches, essays etc. more interesting and lively and help you to get and keep your reader’s / listener’s attention. They do not exist in the language as the units ready for use. They are abstract patterns of the language filled with a definite content when used in speech.

Epithet [ˈepɪθet] is a word or a group of words giving an expressive characterization of the object described.

It is used:

- to show individual attitude of the speaker towards the person or thing described. silvery laugh серебристый смех

e.g. a thrilling tale

a sharp smile

Simile [ˈsɪməli] is an imaginative comparison that shows partial identity of two objects belonging to two different classes.

Simile is used:

- to characterize the given objects or phenomena;

- to create an image;

- to bring out unexpected, striking similarities of different objects.

e.g. The boy seems to be as clever as his mother.

Irony [ˈaɪrəni] is using a word in a sense that is opposite of its usual meaning, There is always a contrast between the notion named and the notion meant.

Irony is used:

- to intensify the evaluative meaning of the utterance

- to produce humorous effect;

- to express very subtle, almost imperceptible nuances of meaning;

- to show irritation, displeasure, pity, regret, etc.

e.g. She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator.

How clever you are! (Подразумевается обратное значение - глупый.)

Hyperbole [haɪˈpɜː(r)bəli] is an exaggerated statement.

It is used:

- to exaggerate quantity or quality;

- to serve expressive and emotive purposes;

- to produce some humorous effect.

e.g. I have told you it a thousand times.

Litotes [ˈlaɪtəʊtiːz]/understatement [ˈʌndə(r)ˌsteɪtmənt]) is expressing an idea by means of negating the opposite idea.

e.g. a cat-sized horse лошадь. Her face isn't a bad one.

Periphrasis [pəˈrɪfrəsɪs] is a stylistic device, which is used to replace the name of an object by description of its most specific features.

It is used:

- to bring out and intensify some features or properties of the given object;

- to achieve a more elegant manner of expression (18-19 century);

- to avoid monotonous repetition.

e.g. The big man upstairs hears your prayers.

Euphemism [ˈjuːfəˌmɪzəm] is a word that replaces another word of similar but stronger meaning.

It is used:

- to soften an otherwise coarse or unpleasant idea, to produce mild effect;

- to avoid any kind of discrimination (agism, sexism, etc.

e.g. toilet → lavatory/loo

Oxymoron [ˌɒksiˈmɔːrɒn] is an attribute or an adverbial combination of two contradictory or incongruous words.

It is used:

- to bring out new shades of meaning by putting together semantically contradictory words;

- to emphasize the emotive meaning;

- to show the author’s subjective individual perception of the object.

e.g. The suffering was sweet!

Zeugma [ˈzjuːɡmə] consists in combining unequal semantically heterogeneous or even incompatible words or phrases.

It is used:

- to produce humorous effect;

- to make the two meanings more conspicuous.

e.g. She lost her bag and mind.

Metaphor [ˈmetəfɔː(r)] is transference of names based on similarity between two objects.

It may serve:

- as an image-creative device;

- to characterize or describe objects or people;

- to impart some expressive or emotive force to utterance.

e.g. floods of tears потоки слез

a storm of indignation шторм негодования

a shadow of a smile тень улыбки

pancake/ball → the sun

Metonymy [meˈtɒnəmi] is based on contiguity of objects or phenomena having common grounds of existence in reality.

It is used:

- to build up imagery;

- to show a property or an essential quality of the concept;

- to impart any special force to linguistic expression.

The hall applauded. Зал приветствовал (под "залом" подразумевается не помещение, а зрители, находящиеся в зале).

e.g. The bucket has spilled.

Synecdoche [sɪnˈekdəki] is a kind of metonymy. This term denotes using the name of part to denote the whole or vice versa.

It is used:

- to show a property or an essential quality of the concept;

- to impart any special force to linguistic expression.

e.g. The buyer chooses the qualitative products.

Antonomasia [ˌantənəˈmeɪzɪə] is the use of a common name as a proper name and vice versa.

It may serve:

- to characterize the bearer of the name;

- to create some humorous effect.

e.g. The Iron Lady

Casanova

Mr. All-Know

Inversion [ɪnˈvɜː(r)ʃ(ə)n] consists in unusual arrangement of words for the purpose of making one of them more emphatic.

e.g. Rude am I in my speech.

Repetition [ˌrepəˈtɪʃ(ə)n] is recurrence of the same element (word or phrase) within the sentence.

It is used:

- for emphasis or for a special affect (e.g. intensifying the duration of the process);

- to attract the reader’s attention to the key-word of the utterance;

-to give rhythm to the utterance.

e.g. Stop! Don't tell me! I don't want to hear this! I don't want to hear what you've come for. Anadiplosis [ˌænədəˈpləʊsɪs] is the repetition of the final unit of one utterance at the beginning of the next utterance.

It is used:

- to attract the reader’s attention to the key-word of the utterance;

- to give rhythm to the utterance.

e.g. I was climbing the tower and the stairs were trembling. And the stairs were trembling under my feet.

Epiphora [ɪˈpɪf(ə)rə] is the repetition of the same unit at the end of two or more successive clauses or sentences.

It is used:

- to attract the reader’s attention to the key-word of the utterance;

- to give rhythm to the utterance.

e.g. Strength is given to me by fate. Luck is given to me by fate. And failures are given by fate. Everything in this world is given by fate. Силы даны мне судьбой.

Anaphora [əˈnaf(ə)rə] implies identity of the several initial elements in some successive sentences.

It is used:

- to attract the reader’s attention to the key-word of the utterance;

- to give rhythm to the utterance.

e.g. What the hammer?

What the chain?

In what furnace was thy brain?

What the anvil?

What dread grasp

Dare its deadly terrors clasp?

("The Tiger" by William Blake)

Polysyndeton [ˌpɒli:ˈsɪndɪtɒn] is deliberate repetition of connectives before each component part, when it is generally not expected.

It serves:

- to introduce strong rhythmic effect;

- to strengthen the idea of equal logical importance of connected;

- components, to emphasize the simultaneity of actions or close connection of properties enumerated, or to promote a high flown tonality of narrative.

e.g. I will either go to the party or study up or watch TV or sleep.

Asyndeton [æ’sinditən] is deliberate omission of conjunctions.

It is used:

- to impart dynamic force to the text;

- to produce strong rhythmic impact.

e.g. The day, water, sun, moon, night – I do not have to purchase these things with money.

Antithesis [ænˈtɪθəsɪs]/contraposition [kɒntrəpəˈzɪʃ(ə)n] consists in putting together two ideas that are quite opposite.

It may be used:

- to create certain rhythmic effect;

- to compare two objects or to set a contrast between them;

- to connect words, clauses or sentences and to unite their senses;

- to disconnect words and disunite their senses.

e.g. Youth is lovely, age is lonely, youth is fiery, age is frosty.

Ellipsis [ɪˈlɪpsɪs] means the omission of one or both principle parts of a sentence.

It is used:

- to reproduce the direct speech of characters;

- to impart brevity, a quick tempo and emotional tension to the narrative;

- as a means of dynamic description.

e.g. Some people go to priests; others to poetry; I to my friends.

Aposiopesis [ˌapə(ʊ)ˌsʌɪəˈpiːsɪs] denotes intentional break in the narrative.

It is used to convey:

- the emotional state of the speaker depriving him of the ability to express himself in terms of language;

- unwillingness to proceed;

- the speaker’s uncertainty as to what should be said;

- hint, warning, promise.

e.g. If only could I ... But now is not the time to tell it.

Personification [pәˌsᴐnifi’kei∫(ә)n] is a kind of metaphor. It is representation of inanimate objects or abstract ideas as leaving beings. The abstract ideas are often capitalized and can be substituted by the pronouns “he” or “she”

It is used:

- as an image-creating device;

- to characterize or describe objects or people;

- to impart some expressive or emotive force to the utterance.

e.g. When sorrows come, they come, they come not single spies but in battalions.

Climax (Gradation) [‘klaimæks] denotes such an arrangement of notions, expressed by words, word combinations or sentences in which what precedes is less significant than what follows.

It is used:

- to intensify the logical importance or emotional (nervous) strain.

- to show the increase in the volume, quantity, size, etc.

e.g. I am not in recession. I’m going fine. I’m well-off. I’m almost rich.

Anticlimax [,ænti’klaimæks] consists in adding one weaker element to one or several strong ones, mentioned before.

It is used:

- to produce “defeated expectancy” effect;

- to attract the reader’s attention;

- to produce humorous or satirical effect;

- to decline from a noble (pompous), impressive tone to a less exalted one.

e.g. Not all are annoying. Some are dead.

Parallelism [‘pærəleliz(ə)m] consists in similarity of the syntactical structure of successive phrases, clauses or sentences. Parallelism may be complete, which consists in repetition of identical syntactical structures.

It is used:

- to convey the idea of semantic equality of the sentence parts;

- to produce some emotive impact on the reader;

- to emphasize the diversity or contrast of ideas (in combination with antithesis);

- to produce some rhythmic effect.

e.g. Loneliness is the poverty of self; solitude is the richness of self.

Rhetoric/rhetorical questions [ˈretərɪk/rɪˈtɒrɪk(ə)l ˈkwestʃ(ə)nz] implies asking question not to gain information, but to assert more emphatically the obvious answer to what is asked. No answer is expected by the speaker.

It is used:

- to express some additional shade of meaning (doubt, assertion, suggestion);

- to enhance the emotional charge of the utterance.

e.g. Have you just said something?

Parenthesis [pə’rənθəsis] is a qualifying explanatory word or phrase, which interrupts a syntactic construction without effecting it.

It is used:

- to create the second plan of the background to the narrative;

- to make some part of a sentence more conspicuous.

e.g. His mouth was set grimly, and a nerve was twitching in his jaw – he had every right to be furious – but in his eyes all I could see was a sort of dreamy sadness.

Pun [pʌn] is play of words based on polysemy or homonymy. In other words, pun is based on the interplay of word or word combination that sound the same.

Pun is used:

- to produce humorous effect;

- to make the two meanings more conspicuous or set a contrast between them.

e.g. What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver? (One trains the mind and the other minds the train.)