metodichka_dlya_filos

autonomous discipline, as dealing with its own peculiar sorts of problems. He did not think that science could solve philosophical problems, and indeed felt, in his last works, that philosophy could not give us any factual information about the world at all. Wittgenstein died in 1951 and with one exception (The Tractatus) his most important writings have been published posthumously. Many of these have recently been edited and published and more are scheduled to appear in the near future. The impact of his work has been phenomenal.

What are the consequences for traditional philosophy if we accept the tenets of logical positivism? The main effect of accepting such a doctrine will be that in so far as philosophy purports to tell us something about reality, and in so far as it claims that the propositions purporting to tell us something about reality, are neither empirically verifiable nor analytic, we can reject such claims as being without sense.

Traditional philosophy purports to tell us something about the world, but because its utterances are in general empirically unverifiable, they are either trivially analytic or meaningless.

The positivists think that philosophy has a legitimate function – what we have called analysis. But by analysis they do not mean analysis in Russell's sense, i.e., the translation of statements in ordinary language into statements which accurately exhibit their logical form. Rather, the function of analysis is to take any problem, to show which questions in it are capable of being answered by mathematical or logical reasoning and which questions are capable of being answered by some sort of empirical investigation. Philosophical problems of the traditional sort are extraordinary complex.

I. Practise reading the following words and find the sentences with

them in the text :
autonomous [ɔ:ʹtɒnəməs]	peculiar [pɪʹkju:lɪə]
conceive [kənʹsi:v]	perception [pəʹsepʃ(ə)n]
doctrine [ʹdɒktrɪn]	posthumously [ʹpɒstjʋməslɪ]
emphasize [ʹemfəˏsaɪz]	Quine [kʹwaɪn]
extraordinary [ɪkʹstrɔ:d(ə)n(ə)rɪ]	Saul Kripke [sɔ:l] [ʹkrɪpki]
influential [ˏɪnflu:ʹenʃ(ə)l]	substantive [ʹsʌbstəntɪv]
legitimate [lɪʹdʒɪtɪmɪt]	unique [ju:ʹni:k]
Ludwig Wittgenstein [lu:ʹtviç]	utterance [ʹʌtərəns]
[vitgənʃtaɪn,-ˏstaɪn]	verifiable [ʹverɪfaɪəb(ə)l]
observation [ˏɒbzɜ:ʹveɪʃ(ə)n]
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II. Answer the questions to the text:

1.What does theorist Saul Kripke think of philosophy?

2.What does L.Wittgenstein think of philosophy activity?

3.How is philosophical analysis conceived by the positivists?

4.What kind of debate has been generated about the nature of philosophy in the end of the twentieth century?

5.What is the function of philosophy?

III. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following wordcombinations:

investigation into the features of the world, a substantive discipline, to lay the groundwork, ordinary language philosophy, to see philosophical activity as, tenets of logical positivism, to purport to tell about, empirically verifiable, to reject claims, to exhibit the form.

IV. Give English equivalents for the following word-combinations:

концепти ідентичності, розширення науки, фактичні дані, породжувати дискусію, вплив праці, емпіричне дослідження, мати справу з проблемами, вирішати філософські проблеми, схвалити доктрину, тотожний з.

V. Complete the following sentences according to the text:

1.W.V.O. Quine sees philosophical activity as…

2.L.Wittgenstein thought that philosophy could not give us…

3.In the first part of the century three important movements laid the groundwork for...

4.What are the consequences for traditional philosophy if we accept…

5.Rather the function of analysis is…

VI. Find the statement which is not given in the text:

1.Philosophy solves puzzles and clear heads, its function is therapeutic.

2.Traditional philosophy aims to tell us something about the world.

3.Wittgenstein’s most important writings have been published after his death.

4.According to the positivists philosophy has a legitimate function.

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VII. Find in the text the antonyms to the following words and make up your own sentences with them:

contradiction, ordinary, objection, to be unable

VIII. Copy out 6-8 key-sentences from the text and get ready to retell the text in brief.

REVISION

I. Read the following text and summarize the previous information:

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental arguments, such as those connected with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. In more casual speech, by extension,

“philosophy” can refer to “the most basic beliefs, concepts, and attitudes of an individual or group”.

The word “philosophy” comes from the Ancient Greek φιλοσοφία (philosophia), which literally means “love of wisdom”. The introduction of the terms “philosopher” and “philosophy” has been ascribed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras.

II. Choose the word which is the synonym to the following word:

Tenet	Disciple
a) problem;	a) teache;
b)purpose;	b)pupil;
c) question;	c) representative;
d)dogma.	d)exsample.

Reflection	Existence
a) thinking;	a) being;
b)method;	b)meaning;
c) activity;	c) presence;
d)knowledge.	d)absence.

III. The word ‘presupposition’ means:

a)an advancement made just before the present time;

b)accepting something as true on the base of probable evidence in its

favour;

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c)creating an unproved theory;

d)the subject of discussion.

IV. Who was the first to introduce into practice the word

‘philosophy’?:

a)Thales;

b)Anaxagoras;

c)Heraclitus;

d)Pythagoras.

V. Give a summary of the information from Unit I.

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UNIT 2

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS AND THE WORLD

KEY WORDS

Being

something self-sufficient, perfect, unchanging and eternal, identified with Good or God, but whose relation with the everyday world remains obscure.

Entity

a real thing; something existing or thought of as existing.

Paradox

a statement consisting of two parts that seem to mean the opposite of each other.

Sophists

the term originally was applied to generally wise men, e. g. Protagoras, Hippias of Elis. Plato treats them as charlatans who took money for teaching the technique.

Eternal

timeless existence, having no beginning and no end.

Phenomenon

1)smth. that is shown;

2)a fact or event that can be scientifically described or explained;

3)an observable fact or event.

Form

the way in which anything exists or its relations.

Reason

the human ability to think in an intelligent way, make sensible decisions, and form clear arguments.

Materialism

the monist doctrine that matter is the only reality and that the mind, the emotions, etc, are merely functions of it.

2.1 THE PROBLEMS OF PERMANENCE AND CHANGE

The first metaphysical problem to be considered is one of the earliest in the history of philosophy, the problem of permanence and change. Beginning with the first philosopher we know of, Thales, Greek thinkers were impressed with two basic features of the world – the occurrence of natural change, and the continuance of certain apparently permanent conditions.

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However, certain difficulties appeared which suggested that the changing and the permanent features of the universe were incompatible. On the one hand, it was pointed out, if everything changed there could be nothing permanent; and on the other hand, if there was a permanent element of the universe, it could not change, could not account for alterations, and therefore could not be part of a system that involved change.

The early Greek philosopher, Heraclitus, was the theoretician of change. Everything alters and changes, he insisted. One can never step twice into the same river, since it does not remain the same. The only permanence was not some ‘stuff’ or substance that remained constant, but rather the principle of law of change. Everything in the cosmos was in flux. It came into being and it passed away.

A later disciple of this philosophy of change, Cratylus, saw that if took this theory seriously, no permanence would be left, not even the permanence of the law of change. If everything changes, even the words we use, the meaning they have must be in constant flux, so that we cannot even have a constant language with which to describe the world in which we live.

Beginning with the early Greek philosopher, Parmenides, an analysis was made of what could validly be said of the fixed, unchanging and unchangeable features of reality. If the universe consisted of some permanent, immutable base, he pointed out, then this constant element could not alter, move, divide, separate, and so on, since any of these properties would indicate change. Everything else in the world of flux, he, Parmenides, claimed, cannot belong to the real world, or the world of permanent Being. The Permanent cannot change into anything without ceasing to be permanent. 'Being is, Non-being is not' and only the unchanging belongs to the world of Being.

His disciple, the famous Zeno of Elea, went still further. He sought to show that not only did the changing world have nothing to do with the Real, Permanent world, but that the concept of change itself was impossible.

One of the most important metaphysical theories in the ancient world was the materialism of Democritus, who tried to resolve the conflicts that had arisen between the theories of change and permanence by offering a new conception of the fundamental characteristics of the real world. The basic features of his universe were both unchanging and unchangeable in one sense, and also constantly in flux in another.

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According to him the ultimate constituent of the real world was an indivisible physical unit, the atom (which originally meant 'that which has no parts', or 'that which cannot be divided'). Each atom had fixed characteristics of form, shape.

But, in addition to their unchangeable nature, the atoms were supposed to be in continual change of position, constantly moving through empty space.

With this compromise between these philosophers, Democritus believed he could develop a theory about the nature of reality that could account for all we know about the cosmos.

II. Practise reading the following words and translate the sentences

with them in the text:
alteration [ˏɔ:ltəʹreɪʃn]	occurrence [əʹkʌrəns]
consider [kənʹsɪdə]	Parmenides [pɑ:ʹmeniˏdi:]
Cratylus [krəʹtaɪləs]	permanence [ʹpɜ:mənəns]
Democritus [dɪʹmɒkrɪtəs]	substance [ʹsʌbstəns]
feature [ʹfi:tʃə]	suggest [səʹdʒest]
further [ʹfɜ:ðə]	theoretician [ˏƟɪərəʹtɪʃ(ə)n]
immutable [ɪʹmju:təb(ə)l]	ultimate [ʹʌltɪmɪt]
incompatible [ˏɪnkəmʹpætəb(ə)l]	Zeno [ʹzi:nəʋ]

II. Answer the questions to the text:

1.What cannot change into anything without ceasing to be permanent?

2.Who said that the concept of change itself was impossible?

3.What is the atom according to Democritus?

4.Which basic features of the world were Greek thinkers impressed

with?

5.Which of Greek philosophers was the theoretician of change?

III. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following wordcombinations:

to account for, to be in flux, to resolve the conflicts, the ultimate constituent, a disciple of philosophy, to have nothing to do with, to offer a new conception, to remain constant, the problem of permanence.

IV. Give English equivalents for the following word-combinations:

вказати на, з одного боку, постійний елемент всесвіту,

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залишатися незмінним, складатися з, предмет дослідження, розвивати теорію, незмінна основа, серйозно сприймати теорію.

V. Find in the text the words having the similar meaning and make up your own sentences with them:

incidence, to change, come into being, to allow, in motion, stable (4), to point, to maintain, to stop, fundamental.

VI. Who said: ‘Being is, Non-being is not’?

a)Zeno;

b)Democritus;

c)Heraclitus;

d)Parmenides.

VII. Find the statement which is given in the text:

1.Parmenides claimed that any attempt to explain change or motion would lead to contradiction.

2.The early Greek philosopher, Zeno, was the theoretician of change.

3.Another of the great metaphysical theories to resolve the problem of change and permanence was that of Aristotle.

4.Democritus believed that the atom was the ultimate constituent of real world.

VIII. Copy out 6-8 key-sentences from the text and get ready to retell the text in brief.

2.2 THE PYTHAGOREANS

"What are things?" the Pythagoreans ask. And they answer: "Things are numbers." But since they find that the same phenomenon is repeated in many things, they continue: "Numbers are not things in themselves, but models in imitation of which things are made." "One" is the beginning of all things.

"Ten" is the all-controlling leader of godly and human lives. Odd numbers are more perfect than even ones; they are better and more worthy. They are identical with the "finite," while evil even numbers are identical with the infinite. One Pythagorean says that God is number seven; another that reason is seven. The number of the soul is six, that of the body four. Here is the famous Pythagorean table of opposite pairs:

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Finite	Infinite	Even	Odd
One	Many	Right	Left
Male	Female	Rest	Motion
Straight	Slanting	Light	Darkness
Good	Evil	Square	Right Angle

The world came into being by attracting to itself two and absorbing the two into one. In the center of the earthly sphere is a fire which encircles the ten divine spheres. Nine of these spheres are those of the planets that were then known, but to bring the total up to the holy number, ten, another called the counter-earth was invented. These ten planets are framed in a glasslike hoop and revolve in unison about the flaming central fire.

On the passing of the "great year," creation repeats itself in every detail, including all personalities, experiences and events.

Many Pythagoreans attempted to combine these and other teachings with the Eleatic, Heraclitean and atomic systems of thought, but they were not notably successful.

Belief in the transmigration of souls was widespread among the Pythagoreans; they considered not only animals and plants, but even sun dust particles to be wandering souls.

The wide popularity of the Pythagorean games with numbers shows the power of confusion in mystic terminology under the appropriate circumstances. Plato, in his later years, was attracted by the obscurities of Pythagoras.

I. Practise reading the following words and translate the sentences

with them in the text:
circumstance [ʹsɜ:kəmstæns,- təns]	imitation [ˏɪmɪʹteɪʃ(ə)n]
confusion [kənʹfju:ʒən]	obscurity [əbʹskjʋ(ə)rɪtɪ]
Eleatic [ˏɛlɪʹætɪk]	phenomenon [fɪʹnɒmɪnɒn]
encircle [ɪnʹsɜ:k(ə)l]	Pythagoras [p(a)ɪʹƟægərəs]
Heraclitean [ʹherklatn]	Pythagorean [p(a)ɪˏƟægəʹri:ən]
holy [ʹhəʋlɪ]	transmigration [ˏtrænzmaɪʹɡreɪʃ(ə)n]
identical [aɪʹdentɪk(ə)l]	unison [ʹju:nɪs(ə)n, -z(ə)n]

II. Answer the questions to the text:

1.What are numbers according to the Pythagoreans?

2.What positive finite features do odd numbers bring in the world?

3.Can numbers be evil? Why?

4.How did the world come into being?

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5. What is the transmigration of souls and how is it connected with the ‘great year’?

III. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following wordcombinations:

models in imitation, odd and even numbers, finite and infinite qualities and forms, to come into being, to be framed in a glasslike hoop, to revolve in unison, transmigration of souls, mystic terminology, to be attracted by the obscurities, creation repeats itself in every detail, to be notably successful.

IV. Give English equivalents for the following word-combinations:

набути широкої популярності, явище, піфагорійці, таблиця протилежних пар, притягувати до себе, поглинати якесь число, число ‘cвятості’, бути розташованим у склоподібній сфері, проходження через ‘великий рік’, елеатичні системи мислення, містична термінологія, за належних обставин, переселення душ, сонячний пил

–це мандруюча душа.

V. Put the words in the following sentences into the correct order:

1. In themselves / numbers / but models in imitation / are not things. 2. Than even ones / are more / odd numbers / perfect.

3. Are identical / even numbers / evil / with the infinite. 4. A fire / of the earthly sphere / is / in the centre.

5. Considered / but even sun dust / particles / the Pythagoreans / not only animals and planets/ to be wandering souls.

VI. Find in the text the synonyms to the following words and make up your own sentences with them:

to go on, to be the same, to be located in a hoop, to rotate popularity.

VII. Correct the wrong statements:

1.The world came into being by attracting to itself one and absorbing it.

2.In the centre of the earthly sphere is an abyss.

3.The counter-earth planet is in the centre of the earthly sphere.

4.The planets revolve randomly beside the flaming central fire.

VIII. Explain the meaning of the following sentence:

The wide popularity of the Pythagorean games with numbers shows

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