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24. The role of the Church of the UK Barely 16 per cent of the adult population of Britain belongs to one of the Christian churches, and this proportion continues to decline. Yet the regional variation is revealing. In England only 12 per cent of the adult population are members of a church. The further one travels from Lon­don, however, the greater the attendance: in Wales 22 per cent, in Scotland 36 per cent and in Northern Ireland no fewer than 75 per cent. Today there is complete freedom of practice, regardless of religion or sect. However, until the mid-nineteenth century, those who did not belong to the Church of England, the official 'estab­lished' or state church, were barred from some public offices. The established church still plays a powerful role in national life, in spite of the relatively few people who are active members of it. There are two established or state churches in Britain: the Church of England, or Anglican Church as it is also called, and the Church of Scotland, or 'Kirk'. In 1533 the English king, Henry VIII, broke away from Rome and declared himself head of the Church in England. Ever since 1534 the monarch has been Supreme Governor of the Church of England. No one may take the throne who is not a member of the Church of England. As Head of the Church of England, the monarch appoints the archbishops, bishops and deans of the Church, on the recommendation of the Prime Minister Thus Church and Crown in England are closely entwined, with mutual bonds of responsibility. The Church of England is frequently considered to be a 'broad' church because it includes a wide variety of belief and practice. Tradi­tionally there have been two poles in membership, the Evangelicals and the Anglo- Catholics. Besides these 'orthodox' churches which accept the doctrine of the Trinity, there are others which have their own specific beliefs, and are consequently viewed as outside orthodoxy.( Jewish community, the Muslim community , Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists.) Apart from Christianity, there are at least five other religions with a substantial number of adher­ents in Britain. These are usually composed of either immigrants or the descendants of immi­grants. Outsiders sometimes see possible tensions between one religion and another. They are less aware of the often greater tensions within each religion or sect between conservatives and liberals. In many religious groups there is a conservative wing which has little time for, or interest in, other religions and which disapproves of its own liberal co- religionists. By contrast, these liberals usually welcome dialogue and warm relations between religions, and enjoy the rich pluralism of a multi-faith society. But regardless of viewpoint, most people in Britain whether religious or not, consider the matter of faith to be a private and personal matter.

1. Geographical position of the US The USA is situated in central North America, with Canada to the North, Mexico to the South, Alt Ocean to the east, the Pacific ocean to the west. The 2 states Alaska and Hawaii are separated from the continental US. Alaska borders on the northwestern Canada and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific. In 1959 Americans welcomed Alaska, and Hawaii to the Union. The US occupies a favorable geograf position. The Atlantic ocean is of great importance foe the country: sea common with Europe, Africa and South America. The sea routs to Asia and Australia pass over the Pacific ocean. The sea route trough the Panama Canal, which connects the 2 oceans, runs over the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea. The total area of the US is 9,6 mln sq km. The population >300 mln. The country can be divided into 9 regions: 1)The Coastal Plains, 2)the Appalachian Highlands,3) the interior Plain,4)the Interior Highlands,5)the Rocky Mount-s,6)Intermountain Plateaus, and basins7) the Pacific Coastal Ranges8)Alaska9)Hawaii 1)A lowland area sweeps from Massachusetts to Texas along the coasts of the Atl Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. The Coastal Pl :2 parts:1)The Atl coastal Plain2) the Gulf Plain. ..A lot of trees, rivers(Mississippi), marshes. 2)1,9 th km. the highest peak – Mount Mitchell. The eastern edge of the h-ds is the Piemont. Much of the -0ds are covered by mixed forests. 3) The region is divided into the flat Central Plains and the Great Plains. There are areas of forests on the hills and river valleys. 4) :1) Superior H-ds,2) Ozark Plateau – A lot of forests, lakes. Is located between the Missouri and Arkansas rivers. The land is gently rolling in places ,with some rugged mountains in others 5) Extend from Canada south to New Mexico and Western Texas. Very high Mountain tops not covered by snow, are capped by tundra grasses and mosses. 6) From Washington to the border with Mexico. Most of the area lies in a “rain shadow” of the Pacific m-ns. The m-ns block rain and so the lowland basins are dry. There is a big damn on the Colorado river(“Hoover damn” – president Herbert Hoover) 7) Is the most western of the physical regions. It includes the Cascade M-ns and Oregon and Sierra Nevada. Active volcanic peak(Mount Helens). Many valleys which have rich soil amd farm areas product(fruits) 8)The Pacific coastal moun-s extend into the south-easrern part of Alaska called the Panhandle. Mount Mckinley – the highest pick of the US. Jukon River, Tundra, import minerals – copper, uranium, nickel. Oil – major sourse of income 9)consists of lots of mostly volcanic islands. The highest point – the active volcano of Mauna Kea. Mild, warm, sunny climate, adequate rainfall. Tropical forests. sugar and pineapple are the chief cash crop. Sea and air transport centre. Pearl Harbor(Japanese-US, 7 December, 1941),which brought the US into WWII. Tourism.

3. Native Americans Today the people once called American Indians, prefer to be called Native Americans. This name reminds us that they were the first people to live in America. We remember from our story about Thanksgiving day that the Red Indians or Native Americans did so much to help the Pilgrim Fathers and other white settlers to get used to life on the new continent. The 1^st and most famous Indian friend of the white settlers was a young princess named Pocahontas. According to the story she threw her arms around captain John Smith to prevent her father from killing him. Pocahontas visited the English colony and brought food and other gifts to the colonists who needed much help. Once she was kidnapped by the settlers who used her as a hostage to guarantee the good behavior of the Indian tribe, to which she belonged. She married one of the white colonist. She died of smallpox. Indians gave settlers food, taught them planting (corn, potatoes, tomato banana, pineapple: cacao, tobacco: drugs-cocaine),hunting and fishing, introduce them cloths, methods of transportation. Aslo-the influence of Indian culture: mount-s, lakes, rivers, cities have Indian names(Chicago, Ohio, Montana) But the whites did not respect Indian culture. They did not care about Indian rights. As the result of this the Native Americans and white settlers became bitter enemies. The colonization of North America became a history of bloodshed and cruelty towards the Indians. The US government began setting aside special territories (called reservations)for the Indians. They were pushed into these lands which was the worst lands. There reser-s were mostly in the Southwest and the Northwest of the US. 19^th- they were kept in the reser-s and forbidden to leave them without permission. Today-270 reser-s for the Native Indians. By 1890, as the result of white cruelty, poverty and poor living conditions the Indian population in the US had decreased to about 240^th The Indians began to protest against such treatment receiving more and more support from the American public. As the result, American treatment of I-ns began to improve. Today, there are about 2.5 mln Native Am-ns living in the US. The majority live in or near the federal reservation, but they are free to leave. Most of them-Southwest(Arizona, California). On the reserve-s traditional Indian customs, languages have survived. But nevertheless they are unhappy. To improve the quality of life for Indians, the US government established the Bureau of Indian Affairs – better life of Indians…(free schools, hospitals). But in comparison with most other Americans, the Indians on the reservations live a poor life.

9. Analyze growing antagonism between the North and the South. Examine the chief events of the Civil war, its consequences. American life was characterized by a growing conflict between the Northern and Southern states. There were millions of black people who were slaves, they exceeded the whites in number. There was a growing rift between the free labour economy of the Northern states and the slave-based plantation economy of the South. In 1808 Congress outlawed the importation of slaves. In 1820,Southern and Northern politicians disputed the issue of whether slavery would be legal in the new western territories Missouri and the Arkansas territory, but it was banned everywhere west and north of Missouri. Then the western expansion was furthered in 1848 when the USA settled a long-standing border dispute with Canada taking over the southern half of the Oregon Country. Thus America became a truly continental power, stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. In 1850 California was admitted as a free state. Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act which permitted Southerners to recapture slaves who had escaped to the free states. In 1854 the old issue of slavery in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska was renewed and the quarrel became more bitter. Under the terms of the Missouri Compromise of 1820,the entire region was closed to slavery. In 1857 the Supreme Court passed a decision which denied blacks the rights of American citizens and legalized slavery in the western territories. The country was dramatically moving towards Civil War. The Republican Party was formed in 1854 as anti-slavery party. It united the industrialist of the North, the free farmers and many inhabitants of the towns. Abraham Lincoln became a leading figure in the party. In 1848 Lincoln was elected a member of Congress. And then in 1860 he won the popular vote and became president of the USA. On March 4,1861 Abraham Lincoln was swarn in as president of the USA. In his inaugural address, he refused to recognize the secession and appealed to the South to restore the union. But the South turned deaf ears and on April 12 the Civil War(1861-1865) began when the Southerners opened fire on the Federal troops stationed at Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. A war had begun in which more Americans would die than in any other conflict before or since. The Northern Army had the support of the industrial north and the people who were against slavery. The main task were to keep the country together and to abolish slavery. On January 1,1863,he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which granted freedom to all slaves. The Southern army or the Confederates won some battles at the beginning of the war, but soon the situation changed. In the summer of 1863 their commander General Lee marched north into Pennsylvania. He met the Union army at Gettysburg, and the greatest battle on American territory took place. After three days of fighting the Confederates were defeated. The northern army took control of the Mississippi Valley and cut the Confederacy in two. In 1864,a Union army under General Sherman marched into the South winning many important victories. General Grant, who commanded another army of the North was also successful in Virginia against General Lee. On April 9,1865 General Lee surrendered to General Grand at Appomattox, and soon all the other forces of the South surrendered. The Civil War was over. It was the most dramatic war on the territory of the USA. America lost more soldiers in this war than in any other-635,000 killed on both sides. It put an end to slavery, which was abolished by the 13^th Amendment to the Constitution in 1965.It is also decided forever that the USA is a single united nation. The victory of the North contributed to the further development of the United States. The country began to make great progress in the development of industry, trade, agriculture. More and more immigrants began to come to America. In the countryside the settlers could easily get land and start farming. Capitalism began to make rapid progress

10. Expansion in the 1^st half of the 19cent. The US, having won its independence, began to develop rapidly. The population was almost rural. Most people lived isolated, with poor books, schools. But the immigrants from the Old World came in great numbers. The government supported them. The Industrial revolution began to make progress. Massachusetts and Rhode Island: textile; Connecticut: tinware and clocks; New York, Pennsylvania: paper, glass, iron. The US was second in shipping after Britain. Political changes aimed at consolidating of central gov-t. The country was governed by Articles of Confederation acc.to which Congress could not make laws or raise taxes. There was no permanent executive or federal judiciary. To this purpose, in May 1787,a convention met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. The delegates, headed by G.Wash., Benj. Franklin, James Madison drafted a new Constitution, which established a strong federal gov-t, gave executive power to an elected president and provided for a Supreme Court. Also it established the principle of checks and balances. The Constitution was ratified in 1789.30 Aprile,1789-G.Washington was unanimously chosen president. He served for 2 terms. He organized a national gov-t, developed politics for settlement, stabilized the admission of 3 new states: Vermont(1791),Kentucky(1792),Tennessee(1796) Bill of rights! A major conflict took place between the Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton and the Democratic Republicans led by Thomas Jefferson. It concerned the power of the central gov-t. The F-ts favored a strong central gov-t and expressed the interests of the rich and prosperous classes. D Rep-ns defended the rights of the individual states and appealed to the small farmers. Many Americans feared that a powerful central gov-t would violate the basic liberties of the American people and therefore in 1791,the Congress added the first 10 amendments to the Constitution-the Bill of rights, which guaranteed freedom of speech, the right of citizens to bear arms, protection against illegal house searches, the right to a fairy trial by jury and protection against cruel and unusual punishments. Today 27 amendments.1791-G.Wash.retired and was succeeded by John Adams, his vice president. 1801-Thomas Jefferson became president.1803-Napoleon resolved to improve the financial position of his country by selling the huge territory of Louisiana located to the west of the Mississippi River to the US for 15million dollars.1814,December-the Treaty of Ghent, It provided for the cessation of hostilities and for a commission to settle the boundary between the USA and Canada.1830-first steam railroad in Baltimore. Monroe doctrine During the early 19cent Central and South America turned to revolution. Napoleon’s conquest of Spain in 1808 provided the signal for Latin Am-ns to rise in revolt against the Spanish colonizers in Lat. Am-a.A vast territory had won independence from the mother country in 1822 President James Monroe recognized the new countries of Latin Am-a. Russia, Prussia and Austria formed the Holly Alliance to protect themselves against revolution. When the Alliance announced its intension of restoring the former colonies to Spain and Russia took moves to consolidate its hold to the South of Alaska, President Monroe in 1823 declared to Congress that the US would not tolerate any further extension of European domination in the Am-a. It became known as the Monroe Doctrine declaring that the Western hemisphere was within the special interests of the USA and that any action taken by any European power would be regarded as an unfriendly disposition toward the US. There was a growing conflict between the free labour economy of the Northern states and the slave-base plantation of the South.1852,”Uncle Tom’s Cabin”-powerful anti-slavery novel.1854-anti-slavery Republican party headed by A.Lincoln.12 April(1861-1865)-Civil War. The North won.

4 Examine the beginning of the colonization of North America by the first settlers from Europe. What considerations influenced many people to move to America? Who were the Pilgrim Fathers? Why are they held so high by the Americans? The May flower Compact. The USA was opened to European colonization by the first voyage of C.Colum. in 1492. The first Europ. to arrive in North Am. were the Vikings travelling west from Greenland where they had founded a settlement in 985. After Columbus there were many expeditions organized by the Spanish, English, French & Dutch. The English were the dominant ethnic group among early settlers of what became the USA, and English became the prevalent Amer. language. Settlers came not only from Gr.Br., but also from Spain, Portug., France, Holland, Germ. and Sweden. Betw.1840 and 1860, the USA received its first great wave of immigrants. In Europe as a whole, famine, poor harvests, rising populations and political unrest caused an estimated 5 mln people to leave their homelands each year. The failure of the Germ. Confederation’s Revolut. of 1848-49 led many of its people to emigrate. Today 22% of Americans have german ancestry. First the immigrants had to pass the inspection. If they had tubercul. or head lice, they had to go back. If they were under16 and were without parents-they were sent back. If they were ex-convicts-they were sent back. One more reason-if they hadn’t 25$ with them.+inspectors changed immigr.’s names. An important event in the colonization of North Am. took place in 1620 when a group of colonists known as the Pilgrim Fathers came to North Am. on the famous ship the Mayflower and settled at Plymouth. They were separatists in England, or members of the Puritan movement wishing to purify the Church of England by making religious services simpler and discipline stricter. That is why they were called Puritans(lat.”purus”-to make pure). They hoped to build “a city upon a hill” – an ideal society and were very intolerant to those who disagreed. The Pilgrim leaders knew that in order to organize their lives in the new land they had to establish rules of behavior. So 41 men aboard the Mayflower signed a special document known as the Mayfl. Comp. to abide by “just and equal laws” drafted by leaders of their own choosing, which was the 1^st agreement for self-government in America. They also chose their first governor. That winter more than half of them died of cold and disease, but neighboring Indians provided information that would sustain them: how to grow crops. The next summer they raised good crops, and in the fall a ship brought new settlers. Their resolution never faltered and the colony continued to expand. Then in rapid succession other English colonies emerged.

2 .Physical features of the US, climate, lakes and rivers, minerals The physical features of the US are also greatly diverse. The majestic Rocky M-ns stretch all the way from Mexico to the Arctic. They divide the country into 2 parts – the east and the west. The East is occupied by the Appalachian M-ns, the Atlantic Plain, the vast Central Plain and the Plateau of Prairies of the Great Plain. The west is under the influence of the powerful Cordillera mountain system and the Rockies are part of this system. The mount-n ranges afford no protection against the cold northerly winds. The Appalach m-ns run along the Atlantic coast of the US. Nearly all the western part of the US is occupied by the Cordillera Moun-n system. The Cor Moun-s extend from Mexico to Canada and Alaska Climate The US has practically all the climate zones. The main landmass of the US is in the temperate zone. The clim conditions are determined by the great mounn-s and the wind. The western parts are favored by the prevailing winds. The Cascade M-ns and the Sieraa Nevada M-ns catch the largest amount of the rain from the Pacific ocean. That’s why there is too little rain for almost the whole western half of US. There is a 50-centimetre rainfall line in the US. Rivers and lakes The rivers of the US belong to the Atlantic and the Pacific basins. Mississipi river – 2/3 of the US water, one of the world’s longest water way. Missouri river is the principal western branch of the Mississippi. Other import tributaries of the Mississipi are Ohio river, the Arkansas river, Red river. The 2 greatest rivers of the Pacific are the Colorado and the Columbia. Thousand of lakes. The Great lakes make up the largest group of the lakes in the US. The total area is 245 th sq km.+ Lakes - Michigan, Superior, Huron, Ontario. Great lakes are connected with the Atlantic ocean. For ex, in the Grant Salt lake there is 6 th ml tons of salt. Minerals. 1^st place in the wofld: coal, natural gas, molibden, lead; 2-nd:copper, zink. The US is rich in oil, iron. The total recouces of coal – 1,5 trillion tons, of oil – 5 th ml tons. Coal – Appalachian, zink – West of Mississipi, uranium – New Mexico.

11.Development US after the Civil War. Monroe Doctrine. American expansionism at the end of the 19 cent. The C.War worked a revolution in Am. Society and economy. That conflict gave an immense stimulus to industry, speeded up the exploitation of natural resources, the development of large-scale manufacturing, the rise of investment banking, the extension of foreign trade. But the abolition of slavery did not ensure equality for the former slaves. The legislatures in the southern states began to pass “black codes” to restrict the freedom of former slaves. However, radical opponents of slavery in Congress tried to protect the rights of former slaves and this led to a conflict between them and president Andrew Johnson. The confrontation made the radicals start impeachment procedures against the president, though they failed. The Reconstruction of southern states continued up to 1877.Reconstruction brought new woes and new burdens. The defeated South turned to the task of physical reconstruction and rehabilitation of its agricultural economy and the restoration of the institutions of civilized society. Farmers and negroes had no money. In the result share-crop system: the farmer provided the negroes with the necessary tools and housing and the latter received, in return,1/3 of the crop.”Carpetbaggers”-groups of blacks which governed southern states, cooperative whites and transplanted Northerners.Ku Klux Klan-secret terrorist organization of whites against reconstruction. Klansmen intimidated and killed the blacks. The blacks were now “second-class citizens. The important inventions-the telephone by Alexander Bell, the photograph, the electric light bulb by Thomas Edison, motion picture etc. Monroe doctrine During the early 19cent Central and South America turned to revolution. Napoleon’s conquest of Spain in 1808 provided the signal for Latin Am-ns to rise in revolt against the Spanish colonizers in Lat. Am-a.A vast territory had won independence from the mother country. In 1822 President James Monroe recognized the new countries of Latin Am-a. Russia, Prussia and Austria formed the Holly Alliance to protect themselves against revolution. When the Alliance announced its intension of restoring the former colonies to Spain and Russia took moves to consolidate its hold to the South of Alaska, President Monroe in 1823 declared to Congress that the US would not tolerate any further extension of European domination in the Am-a. It became known as the Monroe Doctrine declaring that the Western hemisphere was within the special interests of the USA and that any action taken by any European power would be regarded as an unfriendly disposition toward the US. Expansion In 1867 at the instigation of the US Secretary of State William Seward the USA purchased Alaska. It gave access to the tremendous natural resources of the newly territory. But many Ams did not appreciate the importance of Alaska. They considered it as mistake, known as “Seward’s Folly», «Continent of Ice». Soon opinions changed and country derived millions of dollars of profit from exploitation of natural wealth. America began to expanse beyond the seas. the 1^st step-the seizure of the Hawaiian Islands(1898)with Pearl Harbour as a naval base. After the American battleship Maine was blown up in Havana harbor in 1898,the Ams declared war on Spain. The war lasted 10 weeks and ended in the defeat of Spain. Under the peace treaty signed in Paris in the same year, the USA annexed Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. Cuba turned into a colony of the USA. In 1903 the US obtain a site for a military base at Guantanamo Bay which is held to this very day. Proclaiming an Open Door policy to China the US demanded that Ams had the right to share the economic privileges and territ-al concession in China together with the European colonial powers. After Th.Roosvelt in 1901 succeeded to the presidency, Am. foreign policy centered on the new insular possessions and the Panama gateway which was primarily a consequence of the Spanish-American war.The Panama canal(Colombia) could solve the problem of quickly transferring the Am.navy from one ocean to another.in autumn 1903the USA recognized the Independence of Republic Panama .The US get rights to dig a canal across the Isthmus.The new Panama Canal Companu received 40million $ to undertake the construction of the canal.in 1914-1^st vessels passed through the canal. By granting loans to the Latin American states the US established political and economic domination over them. William Taft called this policy “dollar diplomacy». In 1912 the Democrat Woodrow Wilson won the reselection.

13. Explain what is meant by a “strict division or separation of powers” under the Constitution. Outline the structure of the American Constitution. Under the Constitution power was divided among the three brunches of the national government: legislative (the Congress), executive (the President) and judicial (the Supreme Court). Each was given its own authority to prevent abuse of power. These three brunches watch over each other. This watching over is known as the system of checks and balances. That way no single brunch becomes too powerful. This system gives each brunch the means to restrain the other two. For example the President has the power to veto acts passed by Congress, but the Congress may override the veto by a two-thirds majority. But the Supreme Court has the power to declare acts of Congress or President to be illegal if they are in conflict with Constitution. The structure of the Constitution The Constitution of the US consists of the Preamble, 7 Articles and 27 Amendments. The document begins with the Preamble. It holds in its words the hopes and dreams of the delegates to the convention, a justification for what they had done. The Preamble is followed by 7 articles. Article 1, 2 and 3 of the Constitution describe how the members of the three branches of the federal government are chosen, how long they shall serve and what qualifications they must have for office. Article 4 of the Constitution outlines the relationship between states and between the federal government and the states. Article 5 provides for making changes or amendments to the Constitution. Article 6 establishes that the Constitution is the supreme law of the land to which all judges and federal and state officers are bound. Article7 sets forth the manner in which the Constitution was to be adopted.

15. Examine the main functions of the Congress, the process of passing a bill. Comment on how changes in the Constitution are made. Powers given to the Congress by the Constitution: To borrow money, collect taxies, regulate trade To establish inferior courts To raise the army and navy To declare war To establish the Post Office To make law The process of passing a bill Stage 1: introduction. The bill must be introduced to the House. There a member drops his proposal into a “hopper”. In the Senate a member drops a proposal either to the Senate Club or speaks from the floor. A bill can be introduce by a Congressman, Chairman Committee, administration or it can be co-sponsored by several committee members (sponsor- автор законопроекта). A bill supported either by the chairman or the administration has better chances to become law. Stage 2: the bill goes to a committee. There are 38 permanent committees in the Congress(34 – to the House; 4 – to the Senate). Chairman Committees are extremely influential. Stage 3: if they decide to consider the bill, it goes to the subcommittee. They may kill it, but if they approve of it they will hold hearings. The purpose of the hearing is not only to obtain information, but also to test public opinion. After the hearings the bill goes back to the subcommittee for debate and introducing amendments. Stage 4: general debate, mark-up session – members express their opinion. Stage 5: the bill goes to the Full Committee – they debate the bill + the financial vote is taken (a clean bill – entirely changed by amendments). Sometimes there are reports in favor or against the bill. Then it goes back to the respective chamber – the House or the Senate which resolves itself into the Committee of the Whole. Final stage: the whole business is considered by the Rule’s Committee (only in the HP). They limit debate to 1-2 hours. Any member speaks no more than 5 minutes. When the bill is passed it goes to the Senate. But the procedure will be a bit easier since every senator has the right to debate the bill without any committee. Senators can talk as long as they wish. The speeches of the senators may not be the topic of discussion. Article Five describes the process necessary to amend the Constitution. It establishes two methods of proposing amendments: by Congress or by a national convention requested by the states. Under the first method, Congress can propose an amendment by a two-thirds vote (of a quorum, not necessarily of the entire body) of the Senate and of the House of Representatives. Under the second method, two-thirds (2/3) of the state legislatures may convene and "apply" to Congress to hold a national convention, whereupon Congress must call such a convention for the purpose of considering amendments. As of 2007, only the first method (proposal by Congress) has been used. Once proposed—whether submitted by Congress or by a national convention—amendments must then be ratified by three-fourths (3/4) of the states to take effect. Article Five gives Congress the option of requiring ratification by state legislatures or by special conventions assembled in the states. The convention method of ratification has been used only once (to approve the 21st Amendment). Article Five currently places only one limitation on the amending power—that no amendment can deprive a state of its equal representation in the Senate without that state's consent.

16 Institution of American Presidency, main trends of American foreign policy, new policy of Barack Obama The president of the United States is head of the executive power, or the chief executive, and his office is one of the most powerful in the world. Under the Constitution he must «take care, that the laws be faithfully executed”. In addition he has important legislative and judicial powers. The official residence and office of the President is in the White House, Washington. D.C. Constitutional qualifications for the Presidency are relatively simple: the President must be at least 35 years old, a resident of the country for at least 14 years and a nation­al born citizen. The President, together with the Vice President, is elected to a four-year-term. The 22^nd Amendment to the Constitution, 1951, limited the Presidency to no more that two terms. Franklin D. Roosevelt had been the only President to be elected four times (the first time in 1933). If a President dies or is unable to carry out his duties, he is succeeded by the Vice President. The Constitution does not delegate any specific executive powers to the Vice President (or to members of the presidential Cabinet or to other federal officials). Except for the right of succession to the Presidency, the Vice President's only Constitutional duties are to serve as the presiding officer of the Senate. Next in line of succession to the Presidency come the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President pro tempore of the Senate (who presides over the Senate when the Vice President is absent). After them in order of importance, come the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Treasury, the Secretary of Defence and the rest of the cabinet ministers. Functions: As head of the government (the executive branch), the President must carry out the government programmes. He has an important legislative role. He recommends laws to Congress and requests money for federal government operations. He can veto any bill passed by Congress, and his veto may be overruled by a two-thirds vote in both Houses of Congress. The President, as head of a political party and as chief executive officer of the government, has a strong influence on public opinion, on what the course of legisla­tion in Congress very often depends. Within the executive branch, the President has Proadpowers to issue so-called executive orders, which have the force of law. He is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the United States. The President has the authority to appoint the heads of all executive departments and agencies, together with hundreds of other high-ranking officials, including judges, from the district court level to the US Supreme Court. Each appointment must be approved by the Senate. One more important function of the President is that he can grant a full or condition­al pardon to anyone accused of breaking a federal law — make shorter prison sentences and reduce fines. Under the Constitution the President is responsible for foreign relations with other nations. With the Secretary of State, the President manages all official contacts with for­eign governments, and concludes treaties with other countries. Such treaties must be approved by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. Main trends: President Barack Obama introduced a new Global Health Plan which through a comprehensive package sought to spend 65 billion dollars in the next half decade to fight deadly diseases in the poor developing world. President Obama stated during the 64th UN General Assembly that the U.S. fully supported the UN´s Millennium Development Goals and would work to revive fresh thinking on a number of important global issues concerning the future generation, namely: climate change, nuclear disarmament, the global food crisis, the HINI pandemic and the international financial and economic crisis. February and March, Vice President Joe Biden and Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton made separate overseas trips to announce a "new era" in U.S. foreign relations with Russia and Europe, using the terms "break" and "reset" to signal major changes from the policies of the preceding administration. Obama continued his outreach to the Muslim world, releasing a New Year's video message to the people and government of Iran. On September 24, 2009, Obama became the first sitting U.S. President to preside over a meeting of the United Nations Security Council. Early in his presidency, Obama moved to alter U.S. war strategy in Iraq by planning to decrease troop levels. By August 31, 2010, our combat mission in Iraq will end.

14. Explain the structure of the Congress – the supreme legislative body. Discuss the election of Senators and Representatives and whom they represent. The Congress consists of 2 houses: The upper chamber – the Senate The lower chamber – the House of Representatives (HP) The life of any Congress lasts for only 2 years. Originally every Congress would open on the 1^st Monday of December, but it has changed – only odd numbers of the year, the 3d of January. Originally the Congress was to be elected by the state legislative bodies, but the 14^th amendment gave this right to the Am. people. Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 100 Senators, two from each state. One third of the Senators are elected every two years for six-year terms of office. The Senators represent all of the people in a state and their interests. The House has 435 members. They are elected every two years for two-year terms. They represent the population of "congressional districts" into which each state is divided. The number of Representatives from each state is based upon its population. For instance, California, the state with the largest population, has 45 Representatives, while Delaware has one. There is no limit to the number of terms a Senator or a Representative may serve.

12. How and when American constitution was adopted. What caused the necessity of the bill of rights? The US, having won its independence, began to develop rapidly. The population was almost rural. Most people lived isolated, with poor books, schools. But the immigrants from the Old World came in great numbers. The government supported them. The Industrial revolution began to make progress. Massachusetts and Rhode Island: textile; Connecticut: tinware and clocks; New York, Pennsylvania: paper, glass, iron. The US was second in shipping after Britain. Political changes aimed at consolidating of central gov-t. The country was governed by Articles of Confederation acc. to which Congress could not make laws or raise taxes. There was no permanent executive or federal judiciary. To this purpose, in May 1787,a convention met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. The delegates, headed by G.Wash., Benj.Franklin, James Madison drafted a new Constitution, which established a strong federal gov-t, gave executive power to an elected president and provided for a Supreme Court. Also it established the principle of checks and balances. The Constitution was ratified in 1789.30 Aprile,1789-G.Washington was unanimously chosen president. He served for 2 terms. He organized a national gov-t, developed politics for settlement, stabilized the admission of 3 new states: Vermont(1791),Kentucky(1792),Tennessee(1796) Bill of rights! A major conflict took place between the Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton and the Democratic Republicans led by Thomas Jefferson. It concerned the power of the central gov-t. The F-ts favored a strong central gov-t and expressed the interests of the rich and prosperous classes. D Rep-ns defended the rights of the individual states and appealed to the small farmers. Many Americans feared that a powerful central gov-t would violate the basic liberties of the American people and therefore in 1791,the Congress added the first 10 amendments to the Constitution-the Bill of rights, which guaranteed freedom of speech, the right of citizens to bear arms, protection against illegal house searches, the right to a fairy trial by jury and protection against cruel and unusual punishments. Today 27 amendments.1791-G.Wash.retired and was succeeded by John Adams, his vice president.

17 Presidential elections, Electoral College, Barack Obama – new president The method of electing a President is peculiar to the United States. The presidential election is technically an election of presidential electors, not of a President directly. The people of each state do not vote directly for the President. They elect as many electors as this state has Senators and Representatives in the Congress. These electors are selected exclusively by the corresponding party machines. The candidate with the high­est number of votes in each state wins all the electoral votes of the state. The electors of all 50 states and the District of Columbia (3 electors) — a total of 538 persons — compose what is known as the Electoral College. The electors gather in the state capitals shortly after the election and cast their votes for the candidate with the largest number of popular votes in their respective states. To be elected President, a candidate for the Presidency must receive 270 votes. The presidential elections of 2000 revealed the 'inadequacy of the existing system. The Constitution provides, that if no candidate has a majority, the decision should be made by the House of Representatives, with all members from a state voting as a unit. In this case, each state and the Districy of Columbia would be given one vote only. Candidates for the Presidency are chosen by political parties several months before the presidential election, which is held every four years (every leap year) on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The presidential term of four years begins on January 20 (the next year). He starts his official duties with an inauguration ceremony, traditionally held on the steps of the Capitol, where Congress works. The newly-elected President publicly takes an oath of office, which is traditionally administered by the Chief Justice of the United States The words of the oath are provided by the Constitution: Barack Hussein Obama II (born August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. Obama previously served as the junior United States Senator from Illinois from January 2005 until he resigned after his election to the presidency in November 2008. Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004. Obama's presidential campaign began in February 2007, and after a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 general election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. Obama is also the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate.

19 A constitutional protection against misused executive power, the system of checks and balances, Watergate scandal A constitutional protection against misused executive power is contained in the following provision: “The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for treason, bribery or other high crimes…” There are 3 branches of government, which share many powers. The Judicial branch has the power of judicial review (the checking power of the judicial branch) over both the legislative and executive branches. The court can review the president’s actions. It can decide if something does not agree with the Constitution. A federal court can limit the actions of the president or stop what the president plans to do. A federal court can also force the president to do something. This is called placing an “injunction” on the president’s action. Another power the federal court has over the president is judicial review. A good example of how judicial review over the president was used is Watergate. Watergate began in June, 1972. Five men were caught illegally entering the 6^th floor of the Watergate Hotel. During this time, President Nixon was campaigning to be elected again as president. Some people said that the men caught at the Watergate Hotel were trying to get secret information. They said that this information would help President Nixon to get re-elected. President Nixon was re-elected in Nov, 1972. In Jan, 1973, the nation was surprised with news about Watergate. One of the man caught in Watergate Hotel said that people in the White House knew about the break-in. Many men on President Nixon’s staff were accused of knowing about it. President Nixon denied any knowledge of the incident. Later, it was discovered that Pres. Nixon had recorded talks with his staff, and it was thought that these tapes would have some information about the Watergate break-in. The Senate asked Pres. Nixon to give up the tapes, but he said no. He thought that he didn’t have to do it because he was the president. The Senate went to court to get the tapes. Judge Sirica said that the president must give up the tapes. And Pres. Nixon appealed to the Supreme Court. The president claimed that the Senate didn’t have the right to go to court against the president. The Supreme court disagreed. Pres. Nixon was ordered to give up the tapes. Later, Pres. Nixon resigned. He was the first president to ever do so. The 3 branches of government (Executive branch>President, Legislative Br.>Congress, Judicial Br.>Federal Courts) have many important duties. They share many powers. However, the 3 branches of government also watch over each other. This watching over is known as the system of checks and balances. Each branch acts as a control on the other two branches. The 3 branches also balance each other’s powers. The Constitution calls for a separation of powers in government. There are 3 main parts to the separation of powers idea: No person may serve in more than one branch at a time; The Constitution lists the powers and duties of each branch of government; Each branch has enough power to check the power of the other branches. That way no single branch becomes too powerful. The system of checks and balances was set up by the Constitution. There is another way that the power of government as a whole is checked. This way is not mentioned in the Constitution. People help to check the power of government. Because of the checks and balances system, one branch cannot work alone. All 3 branches must work together.

21 General survey of Canada, The British North America Act Canada is the second largest country in the world, with the area of 9, 960,555 sqkm and is exceeded only by that of Russia. Population-30 million. Canada is bordered by only one other country- the USA. In the far north-west, Canada is bordered by Am. state of Alaska. Canada- is a land of thousand of lakes. There are also large unexplored islands: Victoria Isl., Prince of Wales Isl., Baffin Isl., Queen Elizabeth Isl.Canada is divided into 10 provinces and 3 territories: Yukon and the subdivided Northwest Territories- Nunavut and the Northwest Territories. In the East- 4 Maritime Provinces (small in population; inhabitants-British and French) Provinces: -Nova Scotia (means New Scotland- its people are descendants of the Scottish immigrants; the capital- Halifax- is most important Atlantic port. -New Brunswick- borders Nova Scotia on the west.Nothern and western border is formed by the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence River (the St. Lawrence Seaway- the longest waterway in the world). The capital- Fredericton. -Prince Edward Isl. - in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (smallest province).Capital- Charlottetown. -Newfoundland (include the island itself+large part of Labrador). Capital- St. John’s. (until 1949-was a British colony) -Québec( largest province)- this part is called “French Canada». Capital- Quebec. -Ontario(largest in population). Borders on lake Ontario, lake Erie, lake Huron, lake Superior. The Prairie Provinces(3)-to the west of Ontario: -Manitoba(capital-Winnipeg) -Saskatchewan (capital-Regina) -Alberta (capital- Edmonton) - lies in the eastern part of the Canadian Rockies.(National parks-Jasper, Banff) British Columbia. Vancouver- is the largest city and important pacific port. Capital- Victoria. The Canadian’s 3 territories: -The Yukon(capital- Whitehorse) -The Northwest Territories (a land rich in diamonds, oil, gas and gold. -Nunavut (capital- Iqaluit (in the south of Baffin Isl.)) The British North America Act of 1867 brought about confederation of the Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The resulting union was based on compromise. The idea of a federal system with one central government and a separate government for each of the provinces was accepted by the 4 founding provinces.