I've typed four reports so far. I've been typing reports all morning.

Past forms______________________________________________

Past Simple

♦ for an action which happened at a definite time in the past. The time is stated, already known or implied

They went camping by the lake last month. (When did they go camping? Last month. The time is stated.)

♦ for actions which happened immediately one after the other in the past.

First she paid the driver, then she got out of the taxi.

♦ for past habits or states which are now finished. In such cases we can also use the expression used to.

Kitchens were/used to be very different a hundred years ago.

The PS is used with the following time expressions: yesterday, then, when, How long ago ...?, last night/week/month/year/Tuesday, etc., three days/weeks, etc. ago, in 1997, etc.

Past Continuous

♦ for an action which was in progress at a stated time in the past. We do not mention when the action started or finished.

At seven o'clock yesterday evening they were having dinner. (We do not know when i they started or finished their dinner.)

♦ for an action which was in progress when another action interrupted it. We use the past continuous for the action in progress (longer action) and the past simple for the action which interrupted it (shorter action).

He was walking down the street when he ran into an old friend.

♦ for two or more simulta­neous past actions.

She was talking on her mobile phone while she was driving to work.

♦ to describe the atmosphere setting, etc. in the introduction to a story before we describe the main events.

One beautiful autumn afternoon, Ben was strolling / down a quiet country lane. The birds were singing and the leaves were rustling in the breeze.

With: while, when, as, all morning I evening I day I night, etc.

Past Perfect

♦ for an action which happened before another past action or before a stated time in the past.

She had finished work when she met her friends for coffee. (She finished work first and then she met her friends.)

♦ for an action which finished in the past and whose result was visible in the past.

He was happy. He had signed an important contract. (The action finished in the past and its result was visible in the past, too.)

The past perfect is the past equivalent of the present perfect.

He had fixed the old armchair. It looked brand new. (The action -had fixed- happened in the past. The result looked brand new- was also visible in the past.). He has fixed the old armchair. It looks brand new. (The action -has fixed- happened in the past. The result - looks brand new - is still visible in the present.)

With: before, after, already, just, for, since, till! until, when, by, by the time, never, etc.

We can use the PP/PS with before or after without any difference in meaning.

They went out after it had stopped I stopped raining.

Past Perfect Continuous

♦ to put emphasis on the duration of an action which started and finished in the past before another past action or a stated time in the past, usually with sinсе or for.

They had been looking for a house for six months before they found one they liked.

♦ for an action which lasted for some time in the past and whose result was visible in the past.

Last Friday Ron had to fly to New York. His flight was delayed. He was annoyed. He had been waiting at the airport for three hours. (He waited at the airport for three hours and the result of the action was visible in the past, too.)

The past perfect continuous is the past equivalent of the present perfect continuous.

I had been driving for ten hours, so I felt exhausted. (The action - had been driving - lasted for some time in the past. The result -felt exhausted- was also visible in the past.). I have been driving for ten hours, so I feel exhausted. (The action -have been driving-started in the past. The result -feel exhausted- is still visible in the present.)

With: for, since, how long, before, until, etc.

Infinitive________________________________________________

- non finite form of the verb that only calls the action in its process without indicating the person, the number and the mood.

Forms (6) Active Passive

Present (to) lose (to) be lost

Pres. Cont. (to) be losing

Perfect Active (to) have lost (to) have been lost

Perf. Cont. (to) have been losing

Funcs

♦ subject

To elect and to be elected is the right of every person.

- in the function of the subject the infinitive often follows the predicative. Then it has some explanatory words and in this case before the predicative formal subject state.

It was pleasant to walk in the garden.

♦ predicative

- in the function of predicative the I is used with the linking verb “to be” that is translated into Russian “заключается в том чтобы”. The duties of the postman are to deliver letters and newspapers.

As a part of compound verbal predicate

- Inf is used in combination with modal verbs. They must do it at once.

With many other verbs that don’t have complete meaning without Inf. After: to begin, to continue, to like, to want, to intend, to promise, to decide, to try. I hope to see you. I want to be informed.

In the combination with adjectives describing feelings and emotions: happy, glad, eager, … I’m glad to see you.

♦ direct object.

- in this function only indefinite active Inf is used: to do, to go, to wait. I told him to go. He asked me to wait.

(the Inf in this function always preceded by pronoun).

♦ attribute.

- preceded by definite noun: intention, reason, desire. They have no intention to order this goods.

In some cases the Inf can have meaning of future. In Russian this infinitive is translated with a meaning of modality. The question will be discussed as the conference shortly to open in Moscow. The bill to be paid right now.

In this function the Inf can be used after words: the first, the second, the third, the last. He’s always the first to come.

As well after: something, somewhere, some, anyone, anything. Give me something to read.

♦ adverbial modifier. I came here to see

After: too/enough. It’s too cold to stay here.

In some cases we use Inf without ‘to’:

- after modal verbs

- after the word ‘make’ in the meaning ‘заставлять’

BUT: when ‘make’ is in passive it’s followed by Inf with ‘to’.

He was made to do smth.

Usage

♦ Active

pres. inf. Refers to the present or future. He expects to stay here for a week.

pres. cont. inf: (to) be + -ing. Refers to an action happening now. He seems to be working hard.

perf. inf: (to) have + past participle. Refers to the past and shows that the action of the infinitive happened before the action of the verb. He claims to have won a lot of money. (First he won the money, then he claimed that he had won it.)

perfect cont. inf: (to) have + been + -ing. Refers to the past and emphasizes the duration of the action of the infinitive, which happened before the action of the verb. He's got a headache. He claims to have been working on the computer all morning. (We emphasize what he has been doing all morning).

The perfect infinitive is used with verbs such as seem, appear, believe, know, claim, expect and modal verbs.

♦ Passive

pres. inf: (to) be + past participle. He hopes to be offered a promotion.

perf. inf: (to) have been + past participle. She is believed to have been kidnapped.

The to-infinitive

♦ to express purpose. Sam went to the bank to get some money.

♦ after certain verbs (agree, appear, decide, expect, hope, plan, promise, refuse, etc). He promised to help us with the decorations.

♦ after adjectives which a) describe feelings/emotions (happy, glad, etc.), b) express willingness/ unwillingness (willing, eager, reluctant, anxious, unwilling, etc.), c) refer to a person's character (mean, clever, etc.) and also with the adjectives lucky and fortunate. I was annoyed to hear that he had left. He is reluctant to help. You were clever not to believe them.

With adjectives which refer to character we can also use an impersonal construction. It + be + adjective + of + noun I pronoun. e.g. It was clever of you not to believe them.

♦ after certain nouns and pronouns such as something, somewhere, anyone, nothing, etc. usually to show that something is necessary or possible. We've got a lot of homework to do. Take something to drink on the bus.

♦ after too/enough. She is too young to stay out so late.

♦ with it + be + adjective I noun. It is important to get there on time. It is her ambition to open her own shop.

♦ to talk about an unexpected event which can be unpleasant, usually with only. She came home to find her sister waiting for her. They rushed to the airport (only) to be informed that the flight had been cancelled.

♦ after: be + the first/second, etc./next/last/best, etc. He was the first to arrive.

♦ after verbs and expressions such as ask, learn, find out, wonder, want to know, decide, explain, etc. when they are followed by question words (who, what, where, how, etc.). 'Why' is followed by a subject + verb, not by an infinitive. He explained how to operate the machine. I don't know why he left. If two to -infinitives are joined with 'and' or 'or', the 'to' of the second infinitive can be omitted. He agreed to come and help us.