Pullum_geoffrey_k_a_student_s_introduction
.pdf
Glossary 303
Nominative. The inflectional case of I, he, she, we, they, who. Contrasts with accusative.
Non-affirmative contexts. Negative, interrogative and certain related construc tions where we can get expressions like at all which do not occur in positive assertions. Notice: He didn'tcomplain at all; Did he complain at all?; *He com plained at all.
Non-affirmative items. Words or expressions such as at all, ever, and modal need, nonnally found in non-affirmative contexts: You needn't go, but not *You need go.
Non-count noun. Noun denoting an entity that is uncountable; hence a noun unable to combine with cardinal numerals: *onefurniture, *two remains.
Non-finite clause. Subordinate clause headed by gerund-participle (his writing it), past participle (having written it), or plain form in the infinitival construc tion (to write it).
Non-personal. The gender of what as contrasted with who. See personal vs non personal.
Noun. A category of lexemes that includes those denoting all kinds of physical objects, such as persons, animals and inanimate objects. They prototypically inflect for number (dog vs dogs), and head phrases functioning as subject or as object of a verb or preposition (The dog barked, 1found a dog, Give it to the dog).
Number. The grammatical contrast of singular vs plural, as with most nouns (catvs cats).
Object. Internal complement in VP or pp with the fonn ofan N P : Jillpaid the bill.
Distinguished from predicative complement (Jill is a genius). Prototypically corresponds to subject of the corresponding passive: The bill waspaid by Max.
Old information. Infonnation assumed to be familiar to the addressee(s) via earlier mention in discourse, features of the utterance situation, or (in some cases) back ground knowledge.
Open conditional. Conditional characteristically neutral as to whether the condi tion is or will be met: Ifhe loves her he'll change leaves it open whether he loves her or not.
Open interrogative clause. Interrogative clause characteristically used, in main clauses, to ask an open question: Who said that? Contains at least one interrog ative word.
Open question. A question with an open-ended set of answers: Who broke it? (with an open-ended set of answers of the form X broke it, where X stands for some person or persons).
Paradigm. The set of inflectional forms of a lexeme together with their grammat ical labels (in the paradigm of verbs, preterite, 3rd person singular present tense, etc.).
Partitive fused-head construction. NP construction with an explicit or understood of phrase, denoting part of larger set or quantity: [Some of the photos] are great; [some] are not.
304 Glossary
Passive clause. Prototypically, a clause with auxiliary be followed by a past participle followed optionally by by + NP, and having an active counterpart:
The record was broken by Lance (compare active Lance broke the record).
Past participial. A clause with a past participle as head verb: a letter written bymy aunt; Elvis has left the building.
Past participle. Verb form used in the perfect (She has gone) and passive (It was cancelled).
Past tense. Tense primarily indicating past time: wrote (preterite); have written
(perfect).
Perfect (tense). A past tense formed by means of the auxiliary have, normally fol lowed by a past participle: She has gone home; They may have seen you.
Perfective interpretation. An interpretation of a clause describing a situation considered as a whole without reference to its temporal structure: Kim wrote a letter.
Person. The grammatical system classifying primarily a subset of pronouns (and then derivatively NPs) in terms of the roles of speaker and addressee. 1st per son I and we normally indicate reference to (a group containing) the speaker; 2nd person you normally indicates reference to (a group containing) the addressee but not the speaker. 3rd person is the default category with no indica tion of reference to either.
Personal pronoun. The subclass of pronoun to which the system of person applies: I and we are 1st person, you is 2nd person, he, she, it, etc. are 3rd person.
Personal vs non-personal. A gender system applying primarily to interrogative and relative pronouns, contrasting e.g. personal who (for persons and sometimes certain animals) vs non-personal what. Who is that? asks about a person; What is that? asks about something else.
Plain case. A non-genitive case that is neither accusative nor nominative: you, cat, cats, etc.
Plain form. Verb-form identical with the lexical base that is not a present tense; used in imperatives (Stop), subjunctives (It's vitalthathe stop), and infinitivals
(I tried to stop; You must stop).
Plain present. Present tense form of the verb identical with its lexical base and nor mally used with subjects that are either plural or 1 st or 2nd person: [ like it; you do too.
Polarity. The system contrasting positive and negative: I'm ready has positive polarity, while I'm not ready has negative polarity.
Positive clause. Non-negative clause: She is here (contrasts with negative She isn't here).
Predicand. What a predicative complement or adjunct relates to (usually an NP):
Sue seems capable; [ consider Sue capable (Sue is the one who is thought capable).
Predicate. The head of a clause, a function filled by a verb phrase: We washed the car.
Glossary 305
Predicative adjunct. Phrase functioning as adjunct in clause structure, related to an overt or understood predicand. Unwilling to lie. Max confessed (Max is the one who was unwilling to lie).
Predicative complement. Complement of V or P related to a predicand: Sue seems capable; I regard Sue [as capable] (the property of being capable is assigned to Sue).
Predicative use. Use of an adjective or other expression as predicative comple ment or adjunct (as opposed to modifier): I'm hot illustrates the predicative use of hot.
Predicator. Head of a VP, the function of the verb: in I [saw you] the predicator is saw.
Prefix. An affixthat attaches to the beginning of a base.
Preposing. Placement before the subject of an element whose position in a more basic clause construction would be after the verb: Most ofthem he hadn't even read.
Preposition. A category of words whose most prototypical members denote rela tions in space or time (in, on, under, before, etc.) and take NPs as complement
(in the car, on the chair).
Prepositional verb. A verb taking a complement consisting of a PP with a particu lar preposition as head: ask in I askedfor help; come in I came across some old letters.
Present tense. An inflectional category of verbs whose primary use is to indicate present time.
Preterite. A past tense marked by inflection: took is the preterite form of the lexeme take.
Primary tense. The tense system marked by verb inflection, contrasting preterite tense (I knew her) with present tense (I know her).
Primary verb-form. For verbs other than be the primary forms are those marked for tense (present or preterite). For be they also include irrealis mood were (as in ifI were you).
Progressive (aspect). Construction marked by auxiliary be taking a gerund participle complement: She was writing a novel; usually represents a situation as being in progress.
Pronoun. A small subclass of noun not taking determiners. Includes personal pronouns (he, us, etc.), interrogative and relative pronouns (who, what, etc.), reciprocals (each other).
Proper noun. A large subclass of noun characteristically functioning as head of proper names - names individually assigned to particular people, places, etc.:
Bach, Paris, Islam, July.
Pseudo-cleft. Construction like What we need is a knife, splitting the basic coun terpart We need a knife into two parts: a knife is foregrounded in an extra clause as complement of be, and the residue is backgrounded in a fused relative construction (what we need).
Reciprocal pronoun. One of the pronouns each other and one another.
306 Glossary
Reflexive pronoun. One of the personal pronouns ending in · self(or, in the plural,
·selves).
Regular lexeme. Lexeme with inflectional forms all predictable by general rule.
Relative clause. Subordinate clause of which the most central type functions as modifier to a noun: I've met the woman who wrote it. The noun serves as antecedent for an element within the relative clause which may be overt (like who in the above example) or merely understood (as in I've met the woman )!Qll. are referring to).
Relative pronoun. One of the pronouns who, which, what, etc. as used in a relative clause or fused relative construction: He's the one [who caused the trouble]; [What she said] is true.
Relativised element. What is anaphorically linked to an antecedent in a relative clause; e.g., which in the book [which she reviewed], where the relativised ele ment is object.
Remote conditional. Conditional where the condition is not fulfilled (I wouldn't do that ifI were you) or presented as a relatively remote possibility (Ifhe loved her he'd change).
Reversed polarity tag. An interrogative tag with the opposite polarity to that of the clause it's attached to: You told them, didn't you?; You didn't tell them, did you?
Scope ofnegation. The part of the sentence that the negative applies to semantically. In Ididn't log outpurposely (with no pause), purposely is IN the scope of the neg ative: it means "I logged out, but not purposely". But Ipurposely didn 't log out has purposely OUTSIDE the scope of negation: it means "I chose not to log out".
Secondary form. A non-primary inflectional form of the verb: plain form, gerund-participle, or past participle.
Secondary tense. The tense system contrasting perfect tense (Ihave lived in Paris) and absence of perfect tense (I live in Paris).
Shape. Spelling or pronunciation; different from inflectional form in that different inflectional forms may share a shape (the preterite and past participle of tie share the shape tied).
Simple fused head. Construction where fused head can be replaced by dependent plus an understood head: in Should I wear the red shirt or [the blue]? (blue means "blue shirt").
Situation. What is described in a clause, such as an action (She raised her hand), a process (The snow melted), or a state (He is asleep).
Special fused head. Construction where the interpretation is not derivable from anything in the context: Many would disagree (many has the special interpreta tion "many people").
Specified preposition. Preposition whose presence in a PP is determined by the head verb, noun or adjective of which the PP is complement: rely on it; gifts to charity; afraid gfher.
Specifying. The use of be illustrated in The last one to leave was lane, where the predicative complement specifies (i.e., identifies) the last one to leave. Contrasts with ascriptive.
Glossary 307
Speech act. An act like making a statement, asking a question, or issuing a directive. Stranded preposition. Preposition which is not followed by the NP that is under stood as its complement: Who didyou give it to?; This is the book [/ was talking
about].
Subject. The function in clause structure (usually filled by an NP; before the pred icate in canonical clauses) that in active clauses describing action normally denotes the actor: Edran away.
Subject-auxiliary inversion. Placement of the subject after (instead of before) the auxiliary: Is he ill?
Subject-determiner. A genitive NP combining the functions of determiner and complement in NP structure: Kim's house.
Subjunctive clause. One of the three major constructions headed by a plain form verb (the others are imperatives and infinitivals): It is vital that I be kept informed.
Subordinate clause. Normally, a clause embedded as a dependent in a larger clause, often differing in form from a main clause; e.g., This is the book she reviewed.
Subordinator. A small class of words generally serving to mark a clause as subor dinate: I know [that it's possible]; I wonder [whether she's ill]; [For her to be late] is quite unusual.
Suffix. An affix that attaches to the end of a base.
Superlative (grade, form). The term in the grade system indicating "most"; marked either inflectionally (as in hottest) or by the adverb most (most useful).
Supplement. Loosely attached expression set off by intonation (and usually punc tuation) presenting supplementary, non-integrated content. Usually an adjunct
(Luckily, we don 't have to do that) or a supplementary relative clause (I saw her son, who's quite worried).
Symbol. A letter or sequence of letters representing a single sound. In heat there are three symbols: h, ea (a composite symbol), and t.
Tag. Truncated interrogative clause added to the end of another clause, requesting some kind of confirmation: He hasn't seen her, has he?
Tense. A system marked by verb inflection or auxiliaries whose basic use is to locate the situation in time: I liked it (past tense, past time), Ilike it (present tense, present time).
To-infinitival clause. Infinitival clause containing the marker to: I want to see them; We arranged for them to meet.
Transitive. A clause containing at least one object (I broke the vase), or verb used in such a clause (break).
Truth conditions. The conditions that must be satisfied for the statement made by uttering a declarative main clause in a given context to be true: Oswald shot Kennedy and Kennedy was shot by Oswald have the same truth conditions, because if one is true the other is.
Verb. A category of lexemes whose most distinctive property is that they normally inflect for tense (She was ill vs She id ill; We liked it vs We like it).
308 Glossary
Verbal idiom. Idiom with a verb as the main element: kick the bucket ("die"), jall out ("quarrel").
Verbal negation. Negation of the verb, marked either by not (You neednotanswer) or by a verb-form containing the suffix ·n't (You needn't answer).
Voice. The grammatical system contrasting active and passive clauses: Ed broke it is in the active voice, It was broken by Ed is in the passive voice.
Vowel. Speech sound produced with unimpeded smooth airflow through the mouth. Vowel symbol. Letter or sequence of letters representing a vowel: u is a vowel
symbol in hut, but not in quick.
310 |
Index |
|
|
deontic modality,54-6,57n,157, |
function,14-15,64,77,93n,107, |
information question,167 |
|
177,213,298 |
228-9 |
initialism,287 |
|
dependent,13,22-3,225-7,230, |
fused determiner-head,98-9 |
integrated relative,187-91,301 |
|
298 |
|
fused head,97-IOO,110,117, |
internal (complement,etc.),67,84, |
dependent genitive,105,107-8,298 |
259-60,299-300 |
95-7,248,301 |
|
descriptive grammar,4-5 |
fused modifier-head,99-100, |
internalised complement,241-3 |
|
determinative,determinative phrase, |
114-15 |
interrogative,8,14,24,68,139,155, |
|
determiner,16,19,23,83,88, |
fused relative,191-2,254,299 |
161-8,172,177-80,190,192, |
|
90-3,96,98-100,117,195, |
futurate,45,53,300 |
212-13,301 |
|
280-1,298 |
future tense,56 |
interrogative phrase,164,178 |
|
dialect,3-4 |
|
intervening NP, 215-16,220 |
|
direct object,71-3,299 |
gapped coordination,gapping,222n, |
intonation,162-4,187,255 |
|
direction question,167 |
235 |
intransitive,78,30 I |
|
directive,8,53,160,167,170-2,299 |
gender,103-5,190,300 |
inversion,256-8 |
|
dislocation,255 |
general definition/term,7-9,41-2, |
irrealis,58,301 |
|
displaced subject,249 |
68-70,83,128,137,160 |
irregular,33-4,268-9,301 |
|
distributive coordination,234 |
genitive,23,90,105,107-10, |
it-cleft,251-3,301 |
|
ditransitive,78,244,299 |
279-80,300 |
|
|
dummy element,38,40,152, |
gerund,32 |
joint coordination,234 |
|
218-22,249,252,255,260,299 |
gerund-participial/participle,30, |
|
|
dynamic modality,54-5 |
32-3,96,116,135-6,204,210, |
language-particular definition,7-9, |
|
|
|
213-14,219,247,273,300 |
69-70 |
echo question,167-8 |
get-passive,245 |
layered coordination,232-3 |
|
ellipsis,258-60 |
goal,142,300 |
left dislocation,255 |
|
end-attachment coordination,236-7 |
gradability,gradable,19,118,133-4, letter,268 |
||
epistemic modality,54-5,57,299 |
300 |
lexeme,15-22,264-5,302 |
|
exclamative,73,168-9,175,180-1, |
grade,112,115,123,195-202, |
lexical base,31,264-6,302 |
|
299 |
|
280-1,300 |
lexical morphology,264-5, |
exhaustive conditional,179-80 |
grammatical,2 |
281-8 |
|
existential,218,238-40,249-51, |
grammaticised use of preposition, |
lexical verb,18,37,302 |
|
299 |
|
136-7,142 |
lexicalisation,287-8 |
expanded coordinate,226,230,235, |
|
licensing,65-6,95,302 |
|
299 |
|
head,13,22-3,63,130,225-7,230, |
location,142 |
extended existential,extension,250 |
300 |
long passive,243 |
|
external (complement,etc.),67,84, |
heavy element,248 |
lower-level coordination,233-4 |
|
97,121-2,299 |
historic present,46 |
|
|
extraposed object,212-13,249,299 |
hollow clause,211,250,300 |
main clause, 25,36,161,174,186, |
|
extraposed subject,extraposition, |
|
302 |
|
26-7,176,178,180,212-13,218, |
idiom,144-7,300 |
main-clause coordination,233-4 |
|
238-9,247-9,255,257,299 |
imperative,8-9,24-5,31-2,36,152, mandative,176-7 |
||
|
|
161,170-2,300 |
masculine,103-5 |
familiarity status,242 |
imperfective,42-3,52,300 |
matrix clause,174,302 |
|
feminine,103-5 |
incorrect,4-5 |
modal auxiliary,37,39-41,54-8, |
|
final e deletion,271 |
indefinite article,92,97,117,300 |
302 |
|
final y replacement,271-2 |
independent genitive,105,107-8,300 |
modal preterite,46-8,58,302 |
|
finite,36-7,96,174,299 |
indirect complement,95,121, |
modal remoteness,46-8,50 |
|
first person imperative,170-1 |
211-12,300 |
modality,53,56-7 |
|
foregrnunded element,251-4 |
indirect object,71-3,301 |
modifier,20,22-3,79-80,99-100, |
|
foreign plural,278-9 |
infinitival,31-2,36,96,210, |
119,125,141-2,302 |
|
formal vs informal style,3-5,75,90, |
215-19,247,260,301 |
monotransitive,78 |
|
106,110,138-9,153,156,165-6, |
inflection,15-16,17,19,29-35,82, |
mood,41-2,53-9,302 |
|
171,176,190-1,199,202,210, |
93,105,112,128,133-4,152-3, |
morphological modification,266 |
|
245,249n,253,255,278-9,286 |
199,264-81,301 |
morphological operation,266 |
|
fossilisation,143,231,299 |
informal style: see formal vs |
morphology,6,264-88 |
|
free element,282 |
informal style |
multiple marking of negation, 3, |
|
fronting,72-3,138,143,165,168, |
information packaging,26-7, |
156 |
|
187,299 |
|
238-61,301 |
mute e 271,302 |
|
|
Index |
311 |
nationality adjective,100 |
perfect,33,43-4,48-51,304 |
proper noun,17,84-5,189,305 |
|
negation,negative,24,38-9, |
perfective,42-5,52,304 |
prototype,22 |
|
149-57,200,253-4,258,302 |
pe on,31,88,102,304 |
present tense,31,44-6, 273-4,305 |
|
negative concord,156 |
personal (gender),96,166,190,304 |
pseudo-cleft,221,254,305 |
|
negative orientation,154-5 |
personal pronoun,102-8,210,255, |
punctuation,187 |
|
neo-classical compound,284 |
259,304 |
|
|
neuter,103-5 |
phonological modification,285 |
question,159-68 |
|
never-attributive adjective,120 |
phrasal verb,146n |
|
|
new information,242-3,251,253, |
phrase,13,16,22-3 |
raised subject/object,216-22 |
|
258,302 |
plain case,105,107,304 |
reciprocal pronoun,108,305 |
|
nominal,83-4,95-6,183,302 |
plain form (of verb),31-2,35,304 |
reduction,258-61 |
|
nominative,5,67-8,75,105-7, |
plain grade,112,280 |
reflexive pronoun,104-6,108,306 |
|
165-6,190,205,210,303 |
plain present tense,31,35,304 |
regular,33,268-9,306 |
|
non-affirmative context/item,40--1, |
plural,15,17,82-3,85-90,92, |
relative clause,25,83,96,143, |
|
154-5,198,303 |
102-3,112-13,115,169-70,199, |
174-5,183-92,212,229-30,306 |
|
non-basic coordination,234-7 |
259,266-7,272-3,277-9 |
relative phrase,186 |
|
non-canonical clause,24-7 |
plural-only noun,85-6,266 |
relative pronoun,183,306 |
|
non-count noun,85-8,169, 199 |
polar question,163 |
relativised element,185-7,191, |
|
non-finite,36-7,96,174,204-22, |
polarity,24,149,304 |
306 |
|
303 |
polarity-sensitive,154-5 |
remote conditional,47,57,306 |
|
non-gradable,118 |
positive,24 |
replacement phrase,166 |
|
non-personal (gender),99,190,303 |
positive orientation,154 |
reported speech,47-8 |
|
non-restrictive,188 |
possessive,109 |
response,162 |
|
non-scalar comparison,200 |
postposing,256-7 |
restrictive relative,188 |
|
non-standard,2,4,124n,156,279 |
postpositive,121 |
reversed polarity tag,150,154,306 |
|
non-verbal negation,151-4 |
predicand,76,119,134,304 |
right dislocation,255 |
|
non-wh relative,184-5,189,212 |
predicate,12-14,63-5,304 |
right nonce-constituent coordination, |
|
noun,noun phrase,12-17,82-110, |
predicative (adjective,etc,),18,112, |
235-6 |
|
113-15,277-80,303 |
305 |
rules of grammar,5 |
|
noun clause,176n |
predicative adjunct,119,134,305 |
|
|
nucleus,255 |
predicative complement,23,73-8, |
scope of negation,156-7, 170-1, |
|
number,31,82,85-90,93,249n, |
119,123-4,135,140,190,305 |
240,306 |
|
303 |
predicator,63-5,305 |
secondary term (in comparison), |
|
|
prefix,27,284,305 |
196 |
|
object,23,64-8,70-6,140,303 |
preposing,26,73,230,256-7,305 |
secondary tense,42,306 |
|
objective predicative complement,76 |
preposition,preposition phrase,16, |
secondary verb-form,30,39,59, |
|
oblique genitive, I 10 |
20,94,96,127-47,176,179, |
204,306 |
|
old information,242-3,251,253, |
222-3,230,305 |
semantics,6 |
|
258,303 |
prepositional idiom,146-7 |
sentence,12,160-1 |
|
open category,122 |
prepositional passive,244-5 |
set comparison,195-7 |
|
open conditional,47,303 |
prepositional verb,142-4,244,305 |
sexist use of he, 104 |
|
open interrogative/question,159-62, |
prescriptive grammar,4-5,56,75, |
shape,shape sharing,30,33,266, |
|
164-9,175,178-81,303 |
90,105-7,138,156,191,197, |
274,306 |
|
ordinal numeral,100 |
202,206,209,232,247,249n |
short passive,243 |
|
|
present perfect,48-9 |
sibilant,267,272 |
|
paradigm,29-30,303 |
presentational,251 |
simple catenative,215-20 |
|
participle,32 |
presupposition,179,253 |
simple fused head,97-9,114, |
|
particle,144 |
preterite,17,30-1,33,46-50,57-8, |
259-60,306 |
|
partitive fused head,97-9,114,117, |
274-7,305 |
simple sentence,12n |
|
259-60,303 |
primary tense,42,44-8,205,305 |
simple word,281 |
|
parts of speech,16-22 |
primary term (in comparison),196 |
singular,15,17,23,31,74,82-3,85, |
|
passive,26,33,71,75,217-22, |
primary verb-form,30,39,59,152, |
87-90,102,112-15,117,169, |
|
238-47,304 |
305 |
199,277,279 |
|
past tense,6-8,30,43,304 |
productivity,287-8 |
singular-only noun,85-6 |
|
past-participial,past participle,20, |
pro-form,258-61 |
situation,17,43,306 |
|
33,96,116,135-6,204,214, |
progressive,41,51-3,305 |
source,142 |
|
274-7,304 |
pronoun,17,84,100-8,259,305 |
speaker,101-3 |
|
312 |
Index |
|
|
special fused head,97-9,114-15, |
subjectless non-finite,206--9 |
to-infinitival,31-2,211-13,306 |
|
306 |
|
subjunctive,31-2,36,59n,172,177, topic,69-70 |
|
specified preposition,136--7, |
306 |
traditional grammar,11-13,17, |
|
139-40,142,143n,244,306 |
subordinate clause,subordination, |
19-21,32,42,56,59n,68-70, |
|
specifying use of be, 76--7,176, |
16,25,37,45,95,130,140,157, |
72n,127-32,176n,188 |
|
213-14,254,295,306 |
161,174-81,247,306 |
transitive,78,306 |
|
speech act,159-60,172,306 |
subordinating conjunction,129 |
truth conditions,217,306 |
|
speech vs writing,267-9 |
subordinator,16,21,129-30,174-6, |
|
|
spelling rules,269-73 |
178,184,205-6,306 |
understood subject,206--9 |
|
split infinitive,206 |
suffix,27,266,284,306 |
|
|
Standard English,1-4 |
superlative,100,112,115,123, |
variable lexeme,29 |
|
statement,159,167 |
195-8,280-1,306 |
verb,verb phrase,12-13,16--17, |
|
stimulus,167-8 |
supplement,79-80,119,207,306 |
29-59,63-4,115-17,135-6, |
|
stranding of preposition,137-9,187, |
supplementary relative,187-9,301 |
273-7,306 |
|
201,244,306 |
symbol,268,301 |
verbal idiom,144-6,306 |
|
subclausal negation,150-1 |
symmetric coordination,230 |
verbal negation,151-3,170,306 |
|
subject,12-15,66--70,136,176, |
syntactic determination,206--9,213, |
verbless clause,222-3 |
|
178,180,212-13,247-8,306 |
216 |
voice,41,240-1,306 |
|
subject-auxiliary inversion,38-9, |
syntax,6,265 |
vowel,268,306 |
|
68,162,168,178,180-1,247, |
|
VP reduction,260 |
|
249,257-8,306 |
tag,150-1,154,164,249,306 |
|
|
subject--<lependent inversion,258 |
tense,41,44-51,306 |
weight,257 |
|
subject-determiner,108-10,306 |
term comparison,196 |
wh relative,184-6,189-91,212 |
|
subjective predicative complement,76 |
that relative,184-5 |
word,15-22,27,264-90 |
|