Manual for Students
.pdfvery similar to ourselves. There are chat rooms and discussion boards for people with similar interests, such as those stemming from membership in the same ethnic or cultural groups. It is important to remember that communication technologies are neither good nor bad in themselves; what matters is how people use them.
Identity, Culture, Technology. Advances in communication technology lead us to think differently about ourselves and our identity management. In The Saturated Self psychologist Kenneth Gergen describes the changes that occur as technology alters our patterns of communication. Gergen suggests that with the removal of traditional barriers to forming relationships – time and space – these technological advancements lead to multiphrenia, a splitting of the individual into many different selves. We are available for communication, via answering machine, fax, and e-mail, even when we are not physically present. Gergen writes: “The relatively coherent and unified sense of self inherent in a traditional culture gives wayto manifoldand competingpotentials.Amultiphrenicconditionemerges in which one swims in ever-shifting, concatenating, and contentious currents of being. One bears the burden of an increasing array of thoughts, of selfdoubts and irrationalities” [4, p. 80].
Identity on the Internet not only is potentially fragmented but also involves more choice and management issues than in face-to-face interaction.As noted previously, many of the identity cues individuals use to figure out how to communicate with others – such as age, gender, and ethnicity – are filtered out on the Internet. For instance, when you send an e-mail, you can choose whether to reveal certain aspects of your identity. The recipients will not know if you are male or female, young or old, and so on – unless you tell them. The same is true for chat room participation. You can choose which aspects, if any, of your identity you want to reveal. In fact, you can even give false information about your identity.
This capability has resulted in the opportunity for identity tourism – taking on the identities of other races, gender, classes, or sexual orientations for recreational purposes [7, p. 8].And some on-line contexts (e.g., virtual games like Dungeons and Dragons) require users to take on new identities. How is this related to intercultural communication? One of the oft-touted skills of intercultural communication is empathy, the ability to understand what it is like to “walk in someone’s shoes”. Communication
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technology now affords an opportunity to do this – virtually. Thus, for instance, by taking on the virtual identity of a male, by participating in male-only on-line discussions, females might come to understand better what it feels like to be a male [3, p. 140]. The same might be true for other identities as well.
Althoughidentitytourismprovidesintriguingpossibilities for improving intercultural understanding, it also raises some important ethical questions. In one celebrated example, a male psychiatrist participated in on-line discussions as a disabled female. He did so because he wanted to understand something of what it felt like to be a woman and to be disabled. The project backfired, however, as other chat room participants responded to him as a woman and, over time, even fell in love with him. Ultimately, many of the women suffered severe psychological problems as a result of their experiences with him [10, p. 79].
The implications for intercultural communication are enormous. How do people relate to each other when one is information-technology rich and the other is not? When there is increasing use of English on the Internet, what happens to those who do not speak English?
Mobility and Its Effect on Communication. We come in contact with more people these days not only electronically but also physically. Mobility changes the nature of our society and affects the individuals involved. Although some families move while the children are growing up, most moves are made by young adults, and some generations move more than others. Many families move because of divorce. Only about half of American teenagers live with both birth mother and birth father. The rest live with single parents or in step families or extended families (such as grandparents) or are shuttled back and forth between their parents’ houses.
Families also relocate for economic reasons.A U.S. company might relocate to Mexico and transfer the corporate personnel with the company. Many Mexican workers, for their part, cross the border to look for work in the United States. Similarly, Germans from the eastern part of the country move to the western sections seeking improved social and economic opportunities. Increasing technology and mobility mean that we can no longer be culturally illiterate in this shrinking world.
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1.1.2 The Demographic Reason
Changing Immigration Patterns. Today, immigration has changed the social landscape significantly. One in five Americans either was born abroad or born of parents who were born abroad. Prior to the 1970s, most of the immigrants to the United States came from Europe, but this changed in the 1980s and 1990s.As of 1999, over half (51%) the foreignborn population came from Latin America, 27% from Asia, and only 16% from Europe. Of the one million immigrants who now enter the United States every year, 90% are from Latin America or Asia. These shifts in patterns of immigration have resulted in a much more racially and ethnically diverse population. In 1890, only 1.4% of the foreign-born population was non-White; by 1970, 27% were non-White, and by 1999, 75% were non-White. It is not hard to see that the United States is becoming more heterogeneous. This heterogeneity presents many opportunities and challenges for students of intercultural communication. We should also note the potential opportunities in a culturally diverse society. Diversity can expand our conceptions of what is possible – linguistically, politically, socially – as various lifestyles and ways of thinking converge.
Religious Diversity. Immigration also contributes to religious diversity, bringing increasing numbers of Muslims, Buddhists, Confucians, Catholics to almost any European state. Religious beliefs and practices often play an important role in everyday cultural life. Different worldviews can sometimes lead to prejudices and stereotypes. For example, stereotypes about Islam are widespread in U.S. popular culture. Political scientist Ali Muzrui describes Islam as the “ultimate negative Other to the Christian tradition” and laments the rising tide of Islamophobia (fear of Islam and the hostility toward it). He lists the contrasting stereotypes: “Whereas Christianity is supposed to be peaceloving, Islam is portrayed as fostering holy war (Jihad). Whereas Christianity liberates women, Islam enslaves them. Whereas Christianity is modern, Islam is medieval. Whereas Christianity is forward looking, Islam is backward looking. Whereas Christians prefer nonviolence, Muslims easily resort to terrorism” [9, p. 110].
Muzrui goes on to present evidence to debunk each of these
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stereotypes. Religious diversity is part of the demographic imperative that challenges us to learn more about intercultural communication. These increasingly diverse ethnic, racial, economic, and religious groups come into contact mostly during the day in schools, businesses, and other settings, bringing to the encounters different languages, histories, and economic statuses. This presents great challenges for us as a society and as individuals. The main challenge is to look beyond the stereotypes and biases, to recognize the disparities and differences, and to try to apply what we know about intercultural communication.
In any case, the United States are hardly a model of diversity; many countries are far more diverse ethnically. For example, Nigeria has some 200 ethnic groups, and Indonesia has a similar number. Nigeria was colonized by the British, and artificially drawn boundaries forced many different groups into one nation-state, which caused many conflicts. The diverse groups in Indonesia, in contrast, have largely coexisted amiably for many years. Diversity, therefore, does not lead to intercultural conflicts [7, p. 22].
1.1.3 The Economic Reason
The recent trend toward globalization has resulted, essentially, in one world market. Cross-cultural trainers in the United States say that Japanese and other business personnel often spend years in the United States studying English and learning about the country before they decide to establish operations here or invest money. In contrast, manyAmerican companies provide little or no training before sending their workers overseas and expect to close business deals quickly, with little regard for cultural idiosyncrasies.
Many management experts have examined other countries’ practices for ways to increase U.S. productivity. One such idea was quality circles, borrowed from the Japanese and now popular in the United States. Another Japanese strength is the belief in effort for its own sake. Japanese employees work longer hours and sometimes produce better products simply as a result of persistence. This trait also pays off in schools: Japanese students score higher on standardized exams than do American students.
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It will also behoove Americans to research how to do business in the huge emerging market that is XXI-century China.As two experienced business people describe it, China is the largest and most difficult market a business can enter. The last two decades are full of tales of firms that thought they had a lucrative business deal in China sewn up, only for the whole thing to evaporate almost before the wheels of their planes had touched the ground back home [2, p. 28].
Why do so many business people have difficulty succeeding in Chinese and other Asian markets? The reasons involve both differences in business practices and cultural differences between East and West. Ambler and Witzel explain that business dealings in China, as in many Eastern countries, are relationship-oriented, that businesses cannot succeed without respect and harmony. Specifically, in China, three concepts are crucial:
ØQINGMIAN (human feelings), which involves respect for the feelings of others;
ØHE (harmony), which emphasizes the smooth functioning of a group or society;
ØQUANXI (relationship or connection), which underscores the importance of relationships in Chinese business.
The high value placed on these concepts highlights other differences as well. For example, contract law is practiced very differently in China. Whereas in the West the law is the essential set of rules of conduct, the “rules of conduct” in China are the ethics and standards of behavior required in a Confucian society. This means that social pressures rather than legal instruments are used to ensure compliance. Thus, what we might conceptualize as a legal issue may be seen in China as a relationship issue.
Cultural differences in business practices have implications not only when people from different companies do business with each other but also when people from different cultures work on the same team. One effect of globalization is increasing numbers of international teams – sometimes working as virtual teams and rarely meeting face-to-face. These teams present large challenges in intercultural communication. Elizabeth Marx recently analyzed the difficulties of a British-American team and found that problems stemmed from (1) excessive stereotyping,
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(2) lack of openness and communication, and (3) the “culture factor” as an overused excuse for not getting things done. As she worked with the two cultural groups, she found that the Americans were viewed by the British as “too directive, too aggressive, too fast and as thinking on the possible and not thinking about obstacles”. The British, in contrast, were viewed by theAmericans as “too consensus driven, too defensive, quality rather than quantity oriented, negative-thinking, bureaucratic and taking too many holidays” [8, p. 101].
Understanding cultural differences involves not only working with diverse employees but also recognizing new business markets, developing new products, and so on. From this perspective, diversity is a potentially powerful economic resource if organizations view the challenge as an opportunity. In this sense, then, business can capitalize on diversity.
1.1.4 The Self-Awareness Reason
One of the most important reasons for studying intercultural communication is the awareness it raises of our own cultural identity and background. This is also onе of the least obvious reasons. Peter Adler, a noted social psychologist, observes that the study of intercultural communication begins as a journey into another culture and reality and ends as a journey into one’s own culture [1, p. 19].
However, it is also important to realize that intercultural journeys are not simply about personal growth and personal insights. They’re also about learning about the amazing peoples on the planet we inhabit. Living in an increasingly diverse world, we can take the opportunity to learn more about our own cultural backgrounds and identities and about our similarities to and differences from the people with whom we interact.
1.1.5 The Ethical Reason
Living in an intercultural world presents ethical challenges as well. Ethics may be thought of as principles of conduct that help govern the behavior of individuals and groups. These principles often arise from communities’consensus on what is good and bad behavior. Cultural values tell us what is “good” and what “ought” to be good. Ethical judgments
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focus more on the degrees of rightness and wrongness in human behavior than do cultural values.
The study of intercultural communication not only provides insights into cultural patterns but also helps us address the ethical issues involved in intercultural interaction. Specifically we should be able to (1) judge what is ethical and unethical behavior given variations in cultural priorities,
(2) identify guidelines for ethical behavior in intercultural contexts in which ethics clash.
Developing Self-Reflexivity. In studying intercultural communication, it is vital to develop self-reflexivity – to understand ourselves and our position in society. In learning about other cultures and cultural practices, we often learn much about ourselves. Immigrants often comment that they never felt so much like someone of their own nationality until they left their homeland. Think about it: Many cultural attitudes and ideas are instilled in you, but these can be difficult to unravel and identify. Knowing who you are is never simple; rather, it is an ongoing process that can never fully capture the ever-emerging person.
Learning about Others. It is important to remember that the study of cultures is actually the study of other people. Never lose sight of the humanity at the core of the topic. Try not to observe people as if they are zoo animals. Communication scholar Bradford Hall cautions against using the zoo approach to studying culture: “When using such an approach we view the study of culture as if we were walking through a zoo admiring, gasping and chuckling at the various exotic animals we observe. One may discover amazing, interesting and valuable information by using such a perspective and even develop a real fondness for these exotic people, but miss the point that we are as culturally caged as others and that they are culturally as free as we are” [5, p. 14].
Everett Kleinjans, an international educator, stresses that intercultural education differs from some other kinds of education. Although all education may be potentially transformative, learning as a result of intercultural contact is particularly so in that it deals with fundamental aspects of human behavior. Learning about intercultural communication sometimes calls into question the core of our basic assumptions about ourselves, our culture, and our worldviews, and challenges existing and preferred beliefs, values, and patterns of behavior [6, p. 23].
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SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have identified five reasons for studying intercultural communication: the technological, the demographic, the economic, the self-awareness, and the ethical. Perhaps you can think of some other reasons. We have stressed that the situations in which intercultural communication takes place are complex and challenging. Unfortunately, there are no easy answers. We have also raised some issues that will be addressed in the following chapters as we continue our study of communication and culture.
PRACTICE
ØAnswer the Following Questions:
1)How do electronic means of communication (e-mail, the Internet, fax, and so on) differ from face-to-face interactions?
2)How does the increased mobility of our society affect us as individuals?
3)How does it affect the way we form relationships?
4)What are some of the potential challenges organizations face as they become more diverse?
5)How might organizations benefit from increased diversity in the work place?
6)How might individuals benefit?
7)How do economic situations affect intergroup relations?
Ø Intercultural Encounter. Describe and analyze a recent intercultural encounter. This may mean talking with someone of a different age, ethnicity, race, religion and so on.
–Describe the encounter. What made it “intercultural”?
–Explain how you initially felt about the communication?
–Describe how you felt after the encounter, and explain why you think you felt as you did.
–Describe any challenges in trying to communicate. If there were no challenges, explain why you think it was so easy.
–Based on this experience, identify some characteristics that may be important for successful intercultural communication.
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REFERENCES
1.Adler P. S. The Transition Experience: An Alternative View of Culture Shock / Peter S. Adler // Journal of Humanistic Psychology. – 1975. – No. 15. – P. 13 – 23.
2.Ambler T. Doing Business in China / Timothy Ambler, Mark Witzel. – New York : Columbia University Press, 2000. – P. 28.
3.Danet B. Text as Mask: Gender, Play and Performance on the Internet / Belvin Danet // Revisiting Computer-Mediated Communication and Community. – 1999. – P. 129 – 159.
4.Gergen K.TheSaturated Self: Dilemmasof IdentityinContemporary Life / Kenneth Gergen. – New York : Falmer Press, 1991. – P. 80.
5.Hall E. T. Beyond Culture / Edvard T. Hall. – New York : Garden City, 1976. – P. 14.
6.Kleinjans E. A Question of Ethics / Everett Kleinjans // International Education and Cultural Exchange. – No. 10. – P. 20 – 25.
7.Martin J. N. Intercultural Communication in Contexts / Judith N. Martin, Tomas Nakayama. – New York : McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2000. – P. xvi, 8 – 22.
8.Marx E. Breaking Through Culture Shock / Elizabeth Marx. – London : Blackwell Publishing, 1999. – P. 101.
9.Muzrui A. Historical Struggles Between Islamic and Christian Worldviews: An Interpretation / Ali Muzrui // Transcultural Realities: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Cross-Cultural Relations. – London : Thousand Oaks, 2001. – P. 109 – 120.
10.Ting-Toomey S. Intercultural Conflict Competence / Stella TingToomey // Competence in Interpersonal Conflict. – New York, 1997. – P. 79.
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CULTURE, COMMUNICATION, CONTEXT,AND POWER
Overview
In this chapter, we continue our discussion of the dialectical approach and identify four interrelated components or building blocks in understanding intercultural communication: culture, communication, context, and power. Culture and communication are the foreground, and context and power form the backdrop against which we can understand intercultural communication. First, we define and describe culture and communication. Then we examine how these two components interact with issues of context and power to enhance our understanding of intercultural communication.
Topics covered include: High Culture and Low Culture; Culture as a Contested Zone; Culture and Communication; Value Orientations and Cultural Conflict; Communication and Context; Communication and Power.
Key words: Cultural Values, Cultural Time, Monochrone Time Orientation, Polychrone Time Orientation, High Culture, Long-Term vs Short-Term Orientation, Low Culture, Masculinity-Femininity Value, Popular Culture, Power Distance, Symbolic Significance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Values.
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2.1 What is Culture?
Culture is often considered the core concept in intercultural communication. One characteristic of culture is that it functions largely at a subconscious level. In this sense, trying to understand our own culture is like trying to explain to a fish that it lives in water. Therefore, we often cannot identify our own cultural backgrounds and assumptions until we encounter assumptions that differ from our own.
Culture has been defined in many ways – from a pattern of perceptions that influence communication to a site of contestation and conflict. Because there are many acceptable definitions of culture, and
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