7.Homonymy in English. Polysemy vs homonymy

Homonyms- lexical units, which have the same form but different meanings.

Sources:

- from a change in pronunciation and/or spelling

(sea-see)

- loss of endings(love-to love from [lufu]-[luvian])

- borrowings(bank“shore”-bank“financial institution”)

- shortening (fan from fanatic- fan from ME fr. fann)

- diverging meaning development of a polysemantic word( bachelor-1. a young night who follows the banner of another, 2. the lowest university degree, 3. a male of a seal not having a mate during a breeding time)

-euphemisms

-across different dialects and variants of the lang (the same form does not have the same meaning (Am biscuit- Br cookie)

Classification:

(the type of coincidence)

-homophones (tail-tale)

-homographs (live[liv]- live[laiv])

-perfect homonyms(bank-bank)

(the type of meaning)

- lexical homonyms(seal-a sea animal; seal- design on a piece of paper)

-grammatical homonyms(differ only in gramm meaning(seals- pl of “sea animal”; seal’s- sing Poss case)

-lexical-grammatical homonyms(seal(n)- seal(v))

Polysemy vs homonymy

2 major criteria for differentiating:

-etymological (uses history of world origin)

-psychological (is based on decisions of subjects in psychological experiments)

№8 Semantic and non-semantic classification of English words.

Present days semantic theory focuses on synchronic relations in the language system. It’s concerned both with:

1. relations within language (sense relations = semantic relations = semasiology)

2. relations between language and the word

When we talk about the semantic structure of the lexicon we are referring to the network of relationships which buying lexemes together and enable us to perceive the lexicon of the language as a system.

The major of linguistic agree on one point: vocabulary should be studied as a system or as a set of interrelated sub-system.

No lexeme exists in isolation. There is no lexeme without relation.

When linguists studied the semantic structure of the lexicon they are trying to expound all the relationships of meaning that relate lexemes to reach other. Because of the size and complexity of the English language very little of the structure has been described. Descriptive task remains because the size of the lexicon system is changing, rearrangement.

What are these relations that connected words in the lexicon?

Semantic relations:

• polysemantic relations

• synonymic relations - there are no lexemes which have exactly the same meaning (linguistically) Synonyms can therefore be defined in terms of linguistics as two or more words of the same language, belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable, at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning, connotations, style, valency and idiomatic use.

stylistic (father)

• ideоgraphiс synonyms (house)

• Contextual or context-dependent synonyms are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions. It may happen that the difference between the meanings of two words is contextually neutralised

• relative synonyms- : the words name different notions, not various degrees of the same notion, and cannot substitute one another. like : : love : : adore or gift : : talent : : genius

• Total synonymy, i.e. synonymy where the members of a synonymic group can replace each other in any given context, without the slightest alteration in denotative or emotional meaning and connotations, is a rare occurrence. Examples of this type can be found in special literature among technical terms peculiar to this or that branch of knowledge

child, kid – denotations are the same

• antonymic relations - Antonyms may be defined as two or more words of the same language belonging to the same part of speech and to the same semantic field, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and often used together so that their denotative meanings render contradictory or contrary notions

  • Gradable - capable of comparison, they don’t refer to absolute qualities: happy – sad, wet – dry BUT: single – marry, alive – dead we can’t use term gradable as they are contradictories.

  • Converses - (sell – buy, husband - wife)

  • Contradictory notions are mutually opposed and denying one another, e. g. alive means ‘not dead’ and impatient means ‘not patient’.

  • Contrary notions are also mutually opposed but they are gradable, e. g. old and young are the most distant elements of a series like: old : : middle-aged : : young,

Another classification of antonyms is based on a morphological approach:

• root words form absolute antonyms (right : : wrong),

• the presence of negative affixes creates derivational antonyms (happy : : unhappy).

• derivational antonyms. The affixes in them serve to deny the quality stated in the stem. The opposition known : : unknown

• Hypero-hypenymic relations ( plant – tree (oak, apple tree (…)), flower…)

• part-and-whole relations (body – face, eyes, nose; house – kitchen, sitting room, window, bathroom)

• hiratical relations (bishop, arch bishop, prist)

• serious relations

• psytrical relations

Non-semantic grouping is used in all branches of applied linguistics in the alphabetical organization of written words in most dictionaries. It’s of great practical value as the simplest and the most universal way of facilitating the search for the necessary word.

By a lexico-grammatical group we understand a class of words, which have a common lexico-grammatical meaning, a common paradigm, the same substituting elements and possibly a characteristic set of suffixes rendering the lexico-grammatical meaning. These groups are subsets of the parts of speech. Thus English nouns are subdivided into lexico-grammatical groups:personal names animal manes collective names for people collective names for animal abstract nouns material nouns object nouns proper names for people toponymic proper nouns