Учебник по НТП

Unit III

Internet

I. Getting Started

Read the text Internet Infrastructure. Divide it into several key parts and compose 3-5 questions to the each part. Put your questions to class.

II. Working With Vocabulary

Place the words and phrases below into the “Word“ column and complete the table:

	Word	English	Examples	Russian
		definition	of usage	translation

interconnected computer networks, to map, dial-up, satellite links, ground-based microwave links, fiber-optic, electronic mail, packet switching, TCP/IP, node, arc, host, workstation, server, router, DNS, twisted-pair, coaxial cable, wireless electromagnetic transmission, IP-address, dotted decimal number, default network, URL, string, human-readable, machinereadable, mapping, hierarchical name-space, top-level domain names, open-endedness, remote login, asynchronous email, mailing lists, mail-fil- tering agents, moderated bulletin boards, news-group, workflow services.

III. Practising Translation Techniques

Make a written translation of the following text:

Internet Infrastructure

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks. The underlying connections include the dial-up telephone network, satellite and ground-based microwave links, fiber-optic networks, and the cable TV (CATV) network. The actual network cannot be mapped at any one time because new computers and networks are constantly joining the network providing the basis for global electronic mail and information ex-

change via the WWW (World Wide Web) and other services.

The Internet began in the late 1960s as the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), a U.S. Department of Defense project and still continues to grow using the technology called packet switching.

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In a packet switching system, data to be communicated is broken into small chunks that are labeled to show where they come from and where they are to go, rather like postcards in the postal system. Packets are forwarded from one computer to another until they arrive at their destination. If any are lost, they are re-sent by the originator. The recipient acknowledges receipt of packets to eliminate unnecessary re-transmissions.

Today’s Internet is based on a considerable number of protocols, the complete family of which is referred to as the Internet Protocol Suite, or TCP/IP for the combined names of the two most important protocols: Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol which allow multiple packet networks to be interconnected in a flexible and dynamic way. The term protocol is used to refer to the set of rules that govern the communications between nodes (addressable devices) connected by arcs (communication channels). Nodes can be differentiated according to the services they provide. They include:

a)computers from which users can communicate with other host computers on the network (hosts)—user workstations which are sometimes referred to as clients; and servers (which provide centralized services to workstations, such as database-storage);

b)intermediating nodes such as routers and bridges (which forward traffic between networks) and domain-name servers (DNS). The communication channels that connect nodes may be implemented using any of a number of technologies. These include various forms of physical medium, such as copper wire (”twisted-pair“), co-axial cable, fiber-optic cable and wireless electromagnetic transmission either at low-level, such as microwave links and cellular mobile networks, or via satellite.

Each role that each node on the Internet performs is uniquely identified by an IP-address. The IP stands for Internet Protocol, which is the language that computers use to communicate over the Internet.

However, IP-addresses are difficult for people to remember. Each host is accordingly also known by one or more host-names, which corresponds, or ”maps to“, to its IP-address expressed as a dotted decimal number (i.e. 216.27.61.137). Certain values are restricted from use as typical IP addresses. For example, the IP address 0.0.0.0 is reserved for the default network and the address 255.255.255.255 is used for broadcasts. Whereas 216.27.61.137 is difficult to remember, for example, the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) www.microsoft. com is mnemonic and much easier. The string ”.com“ identifies a ”domain“, and the string ”microsoft“ identifies a particular host within that domain. Every time you use a domain name, you use the Internet’s DNS servers to translate the human-readable domain name into the machine-readable IP address. The mechanism whereby the corre-

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spondences or ”mappings” are maintained is called the Domain Name System (DNS)—a hierarchical name-space used to map hostnames to IP-addresses and vice versa. The set of what are called ”top-level domain names” (TLDs) includes .EDU, .COM, .NET, .ORG, .GOV, .MIL,

.INT, and the two letter country codes (i.e. .IT stands for Italy, .UK—for United Kingdom, etc.).

The diversity of services available now on the Internet is considerable, and new forms are continually emerging. It would therefore be futile, and misleading to provide a fixed classification and listing of the services that the infrastructure must support—the objectives of the infrastructure initiative are not just effectiveness and efficiency, but flexibility, adaptability and open-endedness. Nonetheless, the taxonomy of existing services may be of assistance in debates about the infrastructure’s architecture:

•data access services: remote login (e.g. Telnet); file transfer capabilities (e.g. FTP); file search capabilities (e.g. WWW servers);

•network-mediated human communications services: person-to-person communications services, including: asynchro-

nous email (person-to-person email; mailing lists; formatted-document capabilities (to enable tables, diagrams and image to be transmitted) and compound-document capabilities; mail-filtering agents; open or moderated bulletin boards, news-groups and conferences; synchronous communications (internet relay chat (IRC), video-and-voice conversations (e.g. CU-See-Me);

•person-with-group communications, including: mailing list, listserver, bulletin-board or news-group; MUDs (Multi User Dimensions) and MMOGs (Massively Multiplayer Online Game)—multi-user games involving shared fantasy-worlds); workgroup services (e.g. document annotation); workflow services; video-conferencing, group discussion.

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IV. Knowing Ins And Outs

Proverbs are succinct and memorable sayings that reflect accumulated wisdom, experience, ideas, values and beliefs of the human race. Proverbs are very often expressed in metaphor, alliteration, or rhyme and have become part of every cultural vocabulary. Comparisons of proverbs found in various parts of the world show that the ideas they express are often common to many nations, it is images that differ.

For example, a word-to-word translation of the English proverb “The best physicians are Dr. Diet, Dr. Quiet, and Dr. Merryman” would make it sound absurd, to say the least. Thus, when transferring a proverb to another language, the translator should focus on capturing as much of the meaning as possible which involves certain modifications of the proverb. This task becomes far more challenging when good old proverbs get a twist on their wording to correspond with the modern times, see examples of the Internet Age proverbs below.

Study the list of proverbs, define the sources they have originated from and provide equal (or nearly equal) Russian proverbial expressions to both the old and the new versions.

1.‘Ome is where you ‘ang your @.

2.A journey of a thousand sites begins with a single click.

3.The E-mail of the species is more deadly than the mail.

4.You can’t teach a new mouse old clicks.

5.Great groups from little icons grow.

6.C:\ is the root of all directories.

7.Don't put all your hypes in one home page.

8.A user and his leisure time are soon parted.

9.Virtual reality is its own reward.

10.There's no place like http://www.home.com

11.Oh, what a tangled website we weave when first we practice.

12.Pentium wise; pen and paper foolish.

13.The modem is the message.

14.Speed thrills.

15.Too many clicks spoil the browse.

16.A chat has nine lives.

17.Fax is stranger than fiction.

18.Know what to expect before you connect.

19.Windows will never cease.

20.Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day; teach him to use the Net and he won’t bother you for weeks.

Press any key to continue or any other key to quit...

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V. Enhancing Skills In English-Russian Interpretation

Render orally the following text:

Searching The World Wide Web

With the development of the World Wide Web, the information search has grown to be a significant business sector of a global, competitive and commercial market. Powerful players have entered this market, such as commercial internet search engines (“information. coms”), information portals, multinational publishers and online con-

tent integrators.

The term “search engine” is often used generically to describe both crawler-based search engines and human-powered directories. These two types of search engines gather their listings in radically different ways.

A human-powered directory, such as the Yahoo or the Open Directory, uses listings created by people. Either Web site owners submit short descriptions to the directory for the entire site and pay for a listing or external editors from the directory company write entries for sites they review. Each entry is categorized and sub-categorized for easier access by users. When you enter a query in this type of directory, the search software only looks for matches within the submitted and approved descriptions.

Crawler-based search engines, such as Google, create their listings automatically and have three major elements. First is the spider, also called the crawler. The spider visits a web page tracking the page title, key words and other elements, and then follows links to other pages within the site. This is what it means when someone refers to a site being “spidered” or “crawled.” The spider returns to the site on a regular basis, such as every month or two, to look for changes. Everything the spider finds goes into the second part of the search engine, the index. The index, sometimes called the catalog, is like a giant book containing a copy of every web page that the spider finds. If a web page changes, then this book is updated with new information. Search engine software is the third part of a search engine. This is the program that sifts through the millions of pages recorded in the index to find matches to a search and rank them in order of what it believes is most relevant.

All crawler-based search engines have the basic parts described above, but there are differences in how these parts are tuned. That is why the same search on different search engines often produces different results. Worse of that, many of the current World Wide Web text-search interfaces are often needlessly complex. The result is confusion, frustration, and failure for intermediate and advanced users as well as novices. Zero-hit outcomes occur on 30% of searches at some

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services, while huge numbers of hits distract users in many other cases. Improved user-interface design is clearly part of the solution; but even then, as users move from one search service to another, inconsistencies can cause slower performance, uncertainty, mistaken assumptions, and failures to find relevant documents. So, how to get the most from a search engine?

1) Use the principles of Boolean logic

Boolean logic refers to the logical relationship among search terms, and is named for the British-born Irish mathematician George Boole. Boolean operators are the logical terms AND, OR, NOT, and the socalled proximal locators, NEAR and FOLLOWED BY. With the aid of Boolean operators, various search terms can be combined to specify the search action and limit the list of hits to an acceptable and relevant number. The operators AND, OR, and NOT specify relations between search terms: AND is used to indicate that certain terms must occur on a page simultaneously, whereas NOT is used to indicate that certain terms should certainly not occur on a page. OR can be used if the occurrence of either of two terms is sufficient.

Boolean AND means that all the terms you specify must appear in the documents: elephants AND lions

Boolean OR means that at least one of the terms you specify must appear in the documents:

Elephants OR lions

You might use this if you wanted to exclude common hits that would be irrelevant to your query.

Boolean NOT means that at least one of the terms must not appear in the documents. Elephants NOT lions.

You might use this if you anticipated results that would be totally off-base:

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NEAR means that the terms you enter should be within a certain number of words of each other. FOLLOWED BY means that one term must directly follow the other. ADJ, for adjacent, serves the same function.

The robots recognize three ways of using Boolean operators:

fully Boolean, where the operators AND, OR, and NOT are entered in capitals;

implied Boolean, where the plus sign (+) represents AND, the minus sign (-) represents NOT, and no sign at all is automatically taken by the robot as an OR relation.

a menu expressing the Boolean relation in brief sentences like: all of these words (=AND), any of these words (=OR), must not contain (=NOT)

2)Use phrases or combinations of words

To search with phrases or combinations of words, in most search engines you can use quotes. E.g. “harvard university library”. In most search engines you can also use underscores: harvard_university_library.

3) Use wildcards

A wildcard is a symbol (usually an asterisk) used to search for words that only differ by a letter or two. For example, to retrieve pages that contain either "woman" or "women," you might type: wom*n

4) Use truncation

Truncation allows for searching for multiple forms of a word without having to type in each word. For example, to retrieve pages with either "psychology" or "psychologist," you might type: psych*

5) Use more than one search engine or subject directory

No single search engine indexes all the sites on the Web. If the first result of a search action in one particular search engine or subject directory is not satisfactory, then search in at least one other search engine/subject directory. Search engines and directories change from day to day, so get to know their ins and outs. There are also “metasearch” services like Search.com, Metacrawler.com and About.com crawlers. They search several search engines and directories at the same time, trying to extract the most relevant hits from all of them.

6) Use The Principle of Onions

It’s crucial that you start your Internet search right by structuring a query such that you get a limited number of results—otherwise you’re going to get overwhelmed with information. If the very narrow query doesn’t work, you should slowly get more and more general, until you achieve a good balance of useful—but not overwhelming—information. That’s what the Principle of Onions is all about.

I haven›t lost my mind, I have it backed up on disk somewhere...

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VI. Enhancing Skills In Russian-English Interpretation

Render orally the following text:

Виды Подключений К Сети Интернет

Способы соединения с сетью Интернет включают модемное соединение, соединение по выделенной линии, радиодоступ и

спутниковое соединение.

Модемное соединение является наиболее распространенным способом подключения к Интернет в настоящее время, однако его популярность быстро падает. Схема передачи данных посредством модемного соединения осуществляется по следующей схеме:

1. Абонент (пользователь) по телефонной линии посредством модема дозванивается до модемного пула провайдера.

2. Сервер провайдера обрабатывает входящую информацию от пользователя, сверяет учетное имя и пароль. Если они совпадают, то он присваивает компьютеру пользователя свободный IP-адрес, благодаря которому компьютер абонента передает и принимает информацию из сети.

Модемное соединение привлекает большинство пользователей по ряду причин: простота установки оборудования, которая заключается только в приобретении модема; дешевизна подключения; простота взаимодействия с провайдером.

Недостатки модемного соединения: загруженность телефонной линии; низкая скорость передачи данных (3 KB/s); повременная плата за телефонную линию; ненадежное соединение из-за низкого качества телефонных каналов.

Соединение по выделенной линии считается наиболее удобным и скоростным. Для передачи данных посредством выделенной линии провайдер дотягивает до компьютера абонента кабель (медная пара или оптоволокно) и выдает IP-диапазон для выхода компьютера абонента в сеть.

Преимущества выделенной линии: постоянная прямая связь с сетью; свободная телефонная линия; высокоскоростная передача данных (100 KB/s); высокое качество передачи информации.

Недостатки: высокая стоимость установки и платы за аренду канала; стоимость прямо зависит от расстояния до точки подключения; невозможность физического перемещения персонального компьютера в другую точку без новой прокладки провода.

Радиодоступ—это один из беспроводных способов соединения, когда у абонента и провайдера устанавливается приемно-передаю- щее радиооборудование с радиомодемом. Посредством такого оборудования происходит запрос и пересылка Интернет-ресурсов.

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Преимущества: мобильность в физическом перемещении принимающей стороны.

Недостатки: дорогостоящее оборудование; зависимость от метеорологических условий; проблема прямой видимости базовой станции; высокая абонентская плата.

Спутниковым соединением обычно называется комбинированный способ доступа в Интернет: первый поток (запросы пользователя) передается через коммутируемое соединение либо выделенную линию, затем отправляется на наземную станцию спутниковой связи (Uplink), которая преобразует второй поток (запрошенной информации) в формат DVB (Digital Video Broadcast) и отправляет его на спутник. Ответ клиенту транслируется в эфир вместе с общим DVB-потоком и улавливается приемной параболической антенной («тарелкой»), установленной у клиента.

Преимущества: скорость получения информации значительно увеличивается (до 4096 KB/s); возможность дополнительно принимать спутниковые телевизионные каналы; использование pushтехнологий; низкая абонентская плата; нет ограничений в объеме

идлительности получения информации (т.е. нет платы за трафик,

атолько постоянная абонентская плата).

Недостатки: для спутникового доступа необходимо наличие любого другого соединения с сетью Интернет, поскольку спутниковая антенна имеет только принимающую способность; зависимость от метеорологических условий.

VII. Solving Translation Problems

For a certain economy of linguistic space and convenience of usage lots of abbreviated words flooded into the English language. Abbreviations formed from the initial letters of each of the successive parts or major parts of a compound term are called acronyms. They are pronounced as a series of constituent letters, i.e. SCSI is pronounced like “Scuzzy“. Initialisms, on the other hand, are acronyms formed from initial letters and pronounced wholly or partly using the names of its constituent letters, i.e., TFT, LCD, etc. In terms of pronunciation the difference between acronyms and initialisms grounds upon a very obscure, though somewhat practical rule: If an abbreviated word is pronouncable (can be read aloud as a usual English word), then it is an acronym; otherwise, it is an initialism.

Copy out the underlined abbreviated words from the text below and define whether they are acronyms or initialisms. Translate the words into Russian and comment on similar and different features of acronyms and initialisms in the two languages.

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To DSL Or Not To DSL

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is an always-on Internet connection. The key advantage of DSL over modem is speed. DSL is from several, to

dozens, of times faster than a modem connection.

Traditional phone service (sometimes called “Plain Old Telephone Service” or POTS) connects your home or small business to a telephone company office over copper wires that are wound around each other and called unshielded twisted pair (UTP). An input device such as a phone set takes a voice which is a natural analog signal and converts it into an electrical equivalent in terms of volume (signal amplitude) and pitch (frequency of wave change). That’s why computers have to have modems –to modulate and demodulate the analog signal and turn its values into the string of 0 and 1 values that is called digital information.

Because analog transmission only uses a small portion of the available amount of information that could be transmitted over UTP, the maximum amount of data that you can receive using ordinary modems is up to 56 Kbps (thousands of bits per second). The ability of your PC to receive information is constrained by the fact that the ISP filters information that arrives as digital data, puts it into analog form for your telephone line, and requires your modem to change it back into digital. In other words, the analog transmission between your home or business and the phone company is a bandwidth bottleneck.

One of the largest disadvantages of cable modems over DSL is a very narrow band for return signaling (upstream). This band is prone to RF interference and is very limited in capacity. Upstream transmissions may therefore compete with others in the area, get delayed (suffer high latency) due to noise fighting techniques, and cable TOS (Terms Of Service) typically prohibit any kind of constant upstream use. Internet use is shifting away from CBSs (Central Broadcasting Stations) to many individuals and some interesting P2P (peer-to-peer) applications are appearing (games, voice and video applications, communal libraries). These applications need a strong upstream channel.

Digital Subscriber Line is a technology that assumes digital data does not require change into analog form and back. Digital data is transmitted to your computer directly as digital data and this allows the phone company to use a much wider bandwidth for transmitting it to you. Meanwhile, if you choose, the signal can be separated and some of the bandwidth is used to transmit an analog signal so that you can use your telephone and computer on the same line and at the same time. There are the following DSL varieties:

HDSL (High bit-rate DSL)—is the earliest variation of DSL to be used for wideband digital transmission within a corporate site and between the telephone company and a customer. The main characteristic of HDSL is that it is symmetrical: an equal amount of bandwidth is available in both directions. For

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