Учебник по НТП

ence on either glasses or contact lenses. If you wear glasses imagine for a moment what life would be like right now, had these inventions not been made...

Speaking of phobias, there’s a little known phobia called ”Kemophobia”. People suffering from this fear have the notion that sitting too close to the edge of a chair will cause them to fall on the floor. They’re taught to push themselves back firmly and quickly onto the chair when first seated, in order to conquer this terrible dread.

Unfortunately, this often causes the person to tip themselves over backwards, developing an entirely new phobia as yet unnamed...

X. Organizing Ideas

Make a concept map on Illnesses and Treatment and fill it with basic ideas, associated words and phrases you’ve learned in this unit.

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Mineral Deposits

Unit I

Oil

I. Getting Started

Read the text “Oil”. Divide it into several key parts and compose 3-5 questions to the each part. Put your questions to class.

II. Working With Vocabulary

Place the words and phrases below into the “Word” column and com- plete the table:

	Word	English	Examples	Russian
		definition	of usage	translation

Crude oil, sedimentary rock, sediment, tectonic movement, oil-field, oil deposit, oil exploration and extraction, seismic resistance, pilot drilling, drilling platform, oil rig, off-shore oil, a bore, a bore-hole, petroleum storage depot, refinery, pipeline, refined oil, proved oil reserves, pesticide, polythene, iridescence.

III. Practising Translation Techniques

Make a written translation of the following text:

Oil

When oil is extracted from the ground it is called “crude oil”. It floats on water, has a heavy, characteristic smell and has a colour which, depending on its composition, goes from yellow to deepest black, but always has the characteristic ‘oil film’ iridescence. It is a non-uniform, highly complex mixture of hydrocarbons (carbon and hydrogen chains) with paraffins, naphthenes and aromatic compounds. It also has small

quantities of other components including heavy metals and sulphur.

Oil is found in conjunction with sedimentary rocks of marine origin. It was formed by the gradual build-up of deposits of plankton and sea

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creatures on the ocean bed millions of years ago. As the climates changed the seas dried up and these deposits came to be covered in successive layers and strata of sediment. Over the course of time this sediment turned to thousands of metres of sedimentary rock and the continued action of compaction and high temperature brought about the transformation to bitumen and then oil. These deposits became trapped between impermeable layers of rock, and tectonic movement and geological faulting leads to the formation of underground reservoirs of oil, called oil-fields.

Figure 1: Oil deposit trapped between rock strata

Detecting oil-fields is a complicated and expensive process. There is a very high degree of uncertainty and only 1 in 10 of the explorations are typically successful. The expense of oil exploration can only be afforded by a handful of major international companies who now dominate the oil industry. Modern detection is highly scientific involving geophysical methods including seismic, magnetic, electrical resistance and gravitational techniques. These techniques provide evidence for the location of an oil-field however pilot drilling wells are required to confirm the precise location, oil quality and importance of discovered oil fields.

Nowadays oil extraction is carried out both on land and out at sea. These off-shore locations use drilling platforms or oil rigs and the process is more complicated and hazardous. Over half of the crude oil extracted in the world is from off-shore locations. As the most easily accessed fields are found and exploited, oil companies must search further, and deeper, for new oil-fields. Already drillings of 4000 metres and even up to 8000 metres in depth are normal both on land and off-shore.

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Once the exploratory and preparatory phase is completed (typically three years or more) and the project assessed as economically viable, the bore is prepared for the extraction of oil. A metal bore-hole casing protects the oil from contamination with sand residues and the oil is forced up the bore by the pressure of gases trapped in the pocket of the deposit.

The crude oil is transported to storage depots and refineries in large pipelines or, for transportation by sea, in oil tankers of up to 500,000 tonnes capacity. Many safety features are necessary to prevent damage to the pipelines and the oil tankers. Leaks lead to a loss of oil, and major spills can have dire consequences for the environment. At sea crude oil forms slicks on the surface of the water which kills fish and seabirds and endangers coastal habitats. Oil tankers are designed with compartmentalised holds to balance the ship’s loading and to reduce the quantity of oil lost should there be a collision or other problem.

The most important use of refined oil, besides that for energy, is as transport fuel for cars, lorries, trains and aeroplanes. It has many other extremely valuable components whose derivatives are separated out from crude oil in the distillation process. This technique works using a distillation column with graduated temperatures at which the various components, or fractions, of oil are separated out, condensed and collected.

Initial refining releases asphalts, lubricants, combustible fuels and raw materials for the petrochemical industry. Further processing yields innumerable end products such as: fertilisers, pesticides, resins, pharmaceutical products, plastics, polythene, polypropylene, polyesters, textile fibres, explosives, detergents, adhesives, dyes, paint and others.

Many countries in the world have significant oil reserves and more than 50 produce over a million tonnes of crude oil each year, however the greatest part of world oil production is controlled by a relatively small number of countries. Proved world oil reserves are calculated at 14 billion tonnes, with the actual resource being considerably larger. Proved reserves are the quantities of oil that are known to be in place and are considered to be economically recoverable with present technologies. The world distribution of proved oil reserves is shown in the chart below.

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Although world trade in oil is governed by international agreements between countries and multinational companies, possession of oil reserves remains a very important strategic strength. Control of the distribution channels for oil is also strategically very important. Examples include the pipelines from Russian oil-fields to Western European countries and the shipping trade routes of the Suez Canal in Africa and the Panama Canal in Central America.

Figure 3: World trade routes for distribution of oil and petroleum

IV. Knowing Ins and Outs

Match the terms and their definitions, translate the terms into Russian.

1. Associated gas	a. An oil or gas well which is inactive.
2. Barrel	b. Industry measurement of actual refinery
	throughput as opposed to designed capacity.
	Derived by dividing the number of refined barrels
	of oil by the actual number of days the refinery
	was in operation. Abbreviated to “b/cd”.
3. Barrels per day	c. An economically recoverable quantity of crude
	oil or gas.
4. Barrels per	d. Petroleum in gaseous form consisting of light
calendar day	hydrocarbons often found in association with oil.
	Methane is the most dominant component.

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5. “Black” oil	e. Crude oil with a low sulphur content.
6. Crude oil	f. A unit of measurement used in the industry
	for the production rates of oil fields, pipelines,
	and transportation. Abbreviated to “bpd”, “b/d”
	or “bbl/d”.
7. Fuel oils	g. A mineral oil consisting of a mixture of
	hydrocarbons of natural origin, yellow to black in
	colour, of variable specific gravity and viscosity
8. Gas oil	h. Crude oil or heavy fuel oil from the bottom of
	the refining process as opposed to “white” oil.
9. Hydrocarbons	i. A mixture of butane, propane and other light
	hydrocarbons derived from refining crude oil.
	At normal temperature it is a gas but it can be
	cooled or subjected to pressure to facilitate
	storage and transportation.
10.Liquified	j. Usually a landowner who owns no minerals
natural gas (LNG)	under his land.
11. Liquified	k. Gas occurring in combination with crude oil,
petroleum gas	as distinct from gas occurring separately or
(LPG)	manufactured from crude oil.
12. Natural gas	l. A measurement used in the oil industry for a
	unit of volume of oil or oil products equivalent
	to 158.978 litres or 42 US gallons. Abbreviated
	to “bbl”.
13. Refining	m. Oil that is heavy-distilled in the refining
	process. Frequently used for supplying energy
	to power stations and factories.
14. Reserves	n. Compounds containing only the hydrogen and
	carbon atoms. May be in solid, liquid or gaseous
	form.
15. Royalty	o. A measure of the density of a material usually
	obtained by comparing it with water.
16. Shut-in	p. The process of converting crude oil into
	usable fuel products.

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17. Sour crude oil	q. Lighter products from the top end of the
	refining process as distinct from ‘black” oil.
18. Specific	r. A medium-distilled oil from the refining process.
gravity	Often used in diesel fuel.
19. Surface owner	s. The resistance to flow
20. Sweet crude	t. Natural gas liquified either by refrigeration or
oil	by pressure.
21. Viscosity	u. Funds received from the production of oil or
	gas, free of costs, except taxes.
22. “White” oil	v. Crude oil with a high sulphur content.

V. Enhancing Skills in English-Russian Interpretation

Render orally the following text:

Oil – is it really inexhaustible?

Researchers and academic scientists have long been in dispute over what is known as the issue of the origin of petroleum and other

hydrocarbons.

The arguments they put forward divide proponents of these theories into two groups. The first one shares the view of the “organic” origin theory, which has it that oil was formed in a very remote past in the process of transformation of dead organic matter, accumulated in sedimentary rocks and concentrated in porous geological structures which are capped by dense layers of ground impenetrable for the liquid. Thus, the genesis took place over very extended periods lasting for tens of thousands of years under geological conditions that allowed the substance produced to seep through the sedimentary rocks and accumulate under the impenetrable caps in the so-called “traprocks”.

The second, “inorganic” theory assumes that hydrocarbons have always been produced in the result of synthesis of carbon and hydrogen deep down in the ground. Oil synthesised during the process taking place under enormous temperatures and pressures in deeper-lying layers of the earth’s core and mantle migrated into sedimentary rocks and accumulated in similar “traprocks”. According to the second theory, which is also known as the hypothesis of the intratelluric genesis, oil continues to be produced in the depth of the mantle, seeping upwards and constantly refilling existing deposits. Given that carbon and hydrogen resources of the Earth and its atmosphere required for the synthesis of

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oil are virtually unlimited, all the current debates about the possible speedy depletion of oil and natural gas lose their veracity. Statistics show that extraction volumes of oilfields believed to be their ceilings have been outdone while production continues, thus giving more weight to the “inorganic” theory. This could also be accounted for by inaccurate primary evaluation or even deliberate understatement of deposit reserves, as well as by the assumptions of the theory of petroleum migration from deep underlying layers of the ground. However, evidence in favour of the view that refilling of original oil reserves in the oilfields under development is taking place owing to its vertical upward migration from deeper zones of the earth’s core is ever more prevailing.

The question might have remained within the limits of a specialized debate among geologists, as it has been until not long ago. However, the recent supply problems have pushed crude oil to the center stage of international news. This interest has sparked a heated debate on the concept of the «production peak» of crude oil. According to the calculations of several experts, oil production may reach a maximum within a few years and start a gradual decline afterwards.

The concept of «oil peak» is strictly linked to a view that sees oil as a finite resource. Several economists have never accepted this view, arguing that resource availability is determined by price and not by physical factors. Recently, others have been arguing a more extreme view: that oil is not even physically limited. According to some versions of the abiotic oil theory, oil is continuously created in the Earth’s mantle in such amounts that the very concept of «depletion» is to be abandoned and, by consequence, that there will never be an «oil peak.»

The debate has become highly politicized and has spilled over from geology journals to the mainstream press and to the fora and mailing lists on the internet. The proponents of the abiotic oil theory are often very aggressive in their arguments. Some of them go so far as to accuse those who claim that oil production is going to peak of pursuing a hidden political agenda designed to provide Bush with a convenient excuse for invading Iraq and the whole Middle East.

All crude oil is not the same. Crude oil is called

“sweet” when it contains only a small amount of sulfur and “sour” if it contains a lot of sulfur.

Crude oil is also classified by the weight of its molecules. “Light” crude oil flows freely like water while “heavy” crude oil is thick like tar.

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There are, really, two versions of the abiotic oil theory, the «weak» and the «strong»:

The «weak» abiotic oil theory: oil is abiotically formed, but at rates not higher than those that petroleum geologists assume for oil formation according to the conventional theory. (This version has little or no political consequences).

The «strong» abiotic theory: oil is formed at a speed sufficient to replace the oil reservoirs as we deplete them, that is, at a rate something like 10,000 times faster than known in petroleum geology. (This one has strong political implications).

Both versions state that petroleum is formed from the reaction of carbonates with iron oxide and water in the region called “mantle,” deep in the Earth. Furthermore, it is assumed that the mantle is such a huge reservoir that the amount of reactants consumed in the reaction hasn’t depleted it over a few billion years (this is not unreasonable, since the mantle is indeed huge).

Now, the main consequence of this mechanism is that it promises a large amount of hydrocarbons that seep out to the surface from the mantle. Eventually, these hydrocarbons would be metabolized by bacteria and transformed into CO2. This would have an effect on the temperature of the atmosphere, which is strongly affected by the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in it. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is regulated by at least two biological cycles; the photosynthetic cycle and the silicate weathering cycle. Both these cycles have a built-in negative feedback which keeps (in the long run) the CO2 within concentrations such that the right range of temperatures for living creatures is maintained.

The abiotic oil-if it existed in large amounts-would wreak havoc with these cycles. In the “weak” abiotic oil version, it may just be that the amount of carbon that seeps out from the mantle is small enough for the biological cycles to cope and still maintain control over the CO2 concentration. However, in the “strong” version, this is unthinkable. Over billions of years of seepage in the amounts considered, we would be swimming in oil, drowned in oil.

Indeed, it seems that the serious proponents of the abiotic theory all go for the “weak” version. As a theory, the weak abiotic one still fails to explain a lot of phenomena, principally: how is it that oil deposits are almost always associated to anoxic periods of high biological sedimentation rate? However, the theory is not completely unthinkable.

At this point, we can arrive at a conclusion. What is the relevance of the abiotic theory in practice? The answer is “none.” The “strong” version is false, so it is irrelevant by definition. The “weak” version, instead, would be irrelevant in practice, even if it were true. It would change a number of chapters of geology textbooks, but it would have no effect

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on the impending oil peak. So, the abiotic oil theory is irrelevant to the debate about peak oil and it would not be worth discussing were it not for its political aspects.

Given the constant growth of demand for oil and its skyrocketing prices practical explanation of these theories becomes especially significant. If oil is produced by the long-going process of organic matter transformation, its reserves can soon be depleted and mankind should consider developing alternative sources of energy. But if oil is the product of synthesis of carbon and hydrogen going on deep down in the ground, its reserves can be regarded as limitless. Geology as science should face the problem of a more accurate evaluation of the real size of oil reserves, devising methods and rates of development of old and newly discovered oilfields taking into account the extent of possibility of their being refilled.

VI. Enhancing Skills in Russian-English Interpretation

Render orally the following text:

Нефть - «Чёрное золото»

Такое выражение известно всем, его смысл - тоже. Нефть поистине неиссякаемый источник для человека. Сейчас наша

жизнь настолько от неё зависит, что было бы страшно представить её отсутствие. Американский учёный Ральф Лэпп пишет: “Я считаю варварством сжигание уникального наследия Земли - углеводородов - в форме нефти и природного газа. Сжигание этих молекулярных структур только для получения тепла следует считать преступлением”. Широко известна фраза Д.И.Менделеева “Топить печь нефтью всё равно, что топить её ассигнациями”.

Нефть известна очень давно. Археологи установили, что её добывали и использовали уже за 5-6 тысяч лет до нашей эры. Наиболее древние промыслы известны на берегах Евфрата, в Керчи, в китайской провинции Сычуань. Происхождение самого слова “нефть” следует искать в языках народов Малой Азии, “нафата” - “просачиваться”. Упоминание о нефти также встречается во многих древних рукописных книгах. В частности, уже в Библии говорится о смоляных ключах в окрестностях Мёртвого моря.

Существует три теории происхождения нефти: минеральная, органическая и космическая.

Органическая теория. Основы этой теории были положены М.В.Ломоносовым в середине XVIII века. Позднее эта теория менялась и варьировалась, но суть теории такова - органический материалпреобразуетсясначалавуголь,апотомвнефть. Гениальная

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