грамматика+учебник

Do you know any new facts? Some people never change.

I don't know anything about this phenomenon.

When some and any are followed by the preposition of and a noun in plural they refer to an indefinite number of things:

Some of his stories are rather interesting. Have you answered any of his questions?

When some and any modify nouns of material they denote indefinite quantity of the material:

I would like some tea now. Is there any soup for dinner today?

Я бы выпила чаю сейчас. На обед сегодня есть суп?

Some, somebody, someone and something are used in special and general questions expressing requests and proposals:

Who wants some ice cream? – Кто хочет мороженого? Can I have some water please? – Можно мне воды?

Can I do something for you? – Я могу что-нибудь сделать для тебя?

Note: The pronoun "any" in this context will sound rude.

Some used with a noun in the singular has the meaning 'какой-то':

He has some reason to say it.

Some used with a noun in the plural can have the meaning 'одни’, ‘какие-то':

Some people like it, but others don't.

Any, anybody, anyone, anything are used in affirmative statements with the meaning ‘любой, кто угодно, что угодно’:

Any child will do the same. Don't boast. Anyone can do it.

I'm so hungry that I can eat anything.

The indefinite pronouns some and any may be used as subject, object and attribute:

Subject - Some were walking slowly, others just stood and watched. Which pencil do you want? - Any will do.

Object - There is no milk at home. Buy some on the way back. Don't argue. You can take any.

Attribute - Some people like to make fun of others. Have you seen any newspapers here?

The indefinite pronouns somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, and anything may be used as subject, object and predicative:

Subject - Someone told me about him, but I don't remember who. Does anybody know how to cook fish?

Object - Wait a moment, I want to tell you something. Don't tell anybody that you have seen me.

Predicative - You must see the film. It's something wonderful. Everybody who is anybody will come to the party.

The genitive case of the pronouns somebody, someone, anybody and anyone may be used as attribute and predicative:

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Attribute - Somebody's face in the crowd attracted her attention. Do you know anybody's plans for tonight?

Predicative - The book is somebody's. Don't take it.

No, it isn't anybody's. It has been here for so long.

The indefinite pronoun one is used instead of a countable noun already mentioned or known:

The train was crowded, so we decided to catch the later one.

It can be also used in general sense in a formal context:

One can do what one likes here.

Note: The pronoun one is not used to refer to an item that has been defined: Have you seen my bag? – Here it is.

The pronoun one has the grammatical category of case. It has two forms - the common case and the genitive case. The pronoun one in the common case may be used as subject, object or predicative:

Subject - One never knows what is going to happen to him.

Object - I have left my umbrella today. - Don't worry, I can give you one. Predicative - Ask this man. He is the one who can help you.

The genitive case of the pronoun one has the function of an attribute:

It's difficult to hide this feeling. One's voice will show it.

As a word-substitute the pronoun one has the category of number and can be used in plural:

He wrote a number of books. The most interesting ones were translated into Russian.

NEGATIVE PRONOUNS

Negative pronouns denote the absence of a person, thing or quality. They are: no, none, nobody, no one, nothing, neither. They correspond to indefinite pronouns:

INDEFINITE	NEGATIVE
somebody, someone; anybody, anyone	nobody, no one, none
something; anything	nothing, none
some, any, one	no, none

There is correlation between negative pronouns and defining pronouns:

DEFINING	NEGATIVE
everybody, everyone	nobody, no one, none
everything	nothing
all, every, each	no
both, either	neither

The negative pronouns nobody and no one refer to human beings. The pronoun nobody has the category of case. It has the forms of the common case and the genitive case (nobody, nobody's). The negative pronoun nothing refers to things.

The pronoun none means not one of the group of people or things:

I heard the news but none was interesting.

When none of is used with a plural noun or pronoun it can be both singular and plural:

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None of the trains is/are going to Moscow tonight.

The negative pronouns nobody, no one and nothing can be used as subject, object and predicative:

Subject - Nobody will help you if you keep silent. There was nothing to do and we left.

Object - He saw nobody in the room but he felt somebody's presence. I want no one here.

Sorry, but I can do nothing at the moment. Predicative - He felt he would become nobody for those people.

Don't worry, it's nothing.

The genitive case of the negative pronoun (nobody's) can be used as attribute or predicative:

Attribute - He doesn't have friends. He himself is nobody's friend. Predicative - The cat is nobody's. It's a stray cat.

The negative pronoun none can refer both to human beings and things. It can be used as subject or object:

Subject - They expected about a dozen people but none came.

I wanted an apple but there was none in the cupboard. Object - Everybody has left. You'll find none here.

The negative pronoun no is used before a noun as its attribute:

No cars were seen in the street.

The negative pronoun neither refers both to persons and things and it has the meaning "not one or the other of two people or things". It takes the predicate in the form of the 3rd person singular. It can be used as subject, object or attribute:

Subject - Two people entered the room. Neither looked familiar to me. Object - Would you like coffee or tea? - I want neither.

Attribute - He offered me a couple of ideas. Neither idea seemed exciting.

DEFINING PRONOUNS

The defining pronouns are all, each, every, everybody, everyone, everything, either, both, other, another.

The pronoun all is used to denote a complete amount or quantity of something or somebody. It refers to three or more items. In a sentence it can be used as subject, predicative, object or attribute:

Subject - All are present. Predicative - It is all I have now.

Object - You can give her all you have, you won't make her happy. Attribute - I will take all the flowers in the basket.

When all modifies a noun it is used in pre-position; when it modifies a pronoun it can be used in pre-position and in post-position:

All (of) the people were laughing. All (of) them seemed happy. Soon I will see them all.

Note: The pronoun all is not used separately to mean ‘everybody’ or ‘everything’.

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The pronoun both is used to refer to two persons, things, situations, etc. It is used in affirmative sentences as subject, object or attribute:

Subject - John and Mary have called. Both will come. Object - I don't know what book to choose. I'll take both. Attribute - You'll like them. Both books are interesting.

Before a noun with a determiner (e.g. the, my, these), both and both of are both possible:

Both (of) my parents like gardening. We have eaten both (of) the apples.

Both (of) these apples are sweet.

The definite article and the possessive pronoun are often dropped:

He lost both parents when he was a child. We have eaten both apples.

Note: The definite article cannot precede the pronoun both.

Both of precedes the objective case of a personal pronoun; both is used when it follows a pronoun:

They invited both of us. They invited us both.

When both refers to the subject, it can precede a notional verb or a predicative like some adverbs:

These apples are both sweet. We can both speak English. We both speak English.

‘Both ... and’ is used with the same kind of words:

She plays both the piano and the violin. She is both nice and clever. She both sings and dances.

The pronoun each is used to denote every single one of two or more people or things considered separately. It can be used as subject, object or attribute:

Subject – First watch me, and then each will do the same. Object - I read each of his books but I didn't find this description.

Attribute - Each story regarded separately seems rather primitive.

The pronoun every is used to refer to each one of a group of people or things. It is used as attribute:

Every person here knows what I am talking about.

The pronouns everybody and everyone refer to all the members of a group of people. They have the category of case. The common case of the pronouns is used as subject and object:

Subject - Everybody will be glad to see you. – Все будут рады видеть вас. Object - You cannot help everybody. – Вы не можете помочь всем.

The personal pronoun corresponding to the pronoun everybody is they:

Everybody knows you, don’t they?

The genitive case of these pronouns is used as attribute:

Everybody's advice will be appreciated.

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The pronoun everything refers to each thing or all things of a group. It can be used as subject, predicative or object:

Subject - Everything is ready, we can start. Predicative - It is everything I can say just now. Object - He'll do everything you ask him to.

The pronoun either means each of the two, or one or the other of two people or things:

Would you like coffee or tea? - Either. It doesn't really matter.

The pronoun either can be used as attribute, subject, or object:

Subject - Which one will you take? - Either will do.

Attribute - Which team will win today? - Either team is strong enough to win. Object – Which book do you want? – I can take either.

The pronoun other is used to denote a person or thing different from the one mentioned before:

I don't want to go there. I'd like to go to some other place this time.

It has the category of number: singular - other, plural - others. It has the category of case and has two case forms: the common case and the genitive case (other – other's, others – others').

The pronoun other can be used as subject, object or attribute:

Subject - Some were walking, others were running. Object - He can't keep a secret. He will tell others. Attribute - I saw him the other day.

Do this exercise. Other exercises are too difficult for you.

When preceded by the definite article, it denotes the second one of the two or all the rest:

John and Pete were standing by the window. John was looking out, the other was looking at us.

Write this exercise and do the other ones orally.

‘The others’ means all the rest:

John has come, the others will come later.

The pronoun another is used to refer to one more person or thing of the same kind or to a different person or thing:

I'd like another helping of the cake. – Я хочу еще порцию торта. I don't like this magazine, give me another one. –

Мне не нравится этот журнал, я хочу другой.

It can be used as subject, object or attribute:

Subject - She watched the guys. One was talking, another was listening, and the others were quiet.

Object - No, I don't like this cake. I'd rather take another. Attribute - I am sure, there is another blanket somewhere.

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RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS

Reciprocal pronouns each other and one another are used to show that each of two or more people does something to the other or others:

They looked at each other in surprise.

Each other usually refers to two subjects, one another to more than two:

John and Mary blamed each other for being late. In our group we always help one another.

Reciprocal pronouns have two cases. The common case is used as an object, while the genitive case is used as an attribute:

Object - They used to tell one another everything they felt. The sisters always helped each other.

Attribute - They no longer believed each other's words.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

Interrogative pronouns are who, whose, what, which. They are used to form special questions.

Who has the category of case. The case forms are who for the nominative case and whom for the objective case. The pronoun who refers to persons:

Who is there? Whom (Who) are you talking about?

What is used in questions about a thing or person or a kind of thing or person:

What do you know about him? What is your mother? What is there on the table? What is he like?

Which refers to a person or thing when a choice has to be made:

Which of you can answer my question? Which of the books is yours?

Whose is used to ask who a particular thing belongs to:

Whose coat is this?

Interrogative pronouns can have the functions of subject, predicative, object or attribute:

Subject - Who is going with me? What is there in the room? Predicative - Who are you? What is this?

Object - Who (whom) do you expect to see there? What do you want to do?

Attribute - Whose sister is she? Which book would you like to take? What kind of weather do you like?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, and that. They refer back to a person or thing or a possessive relationship and links a relative (attributive) clause with the main one. The word they refer to is called antecedent. If the antecedent denotes a person, the pronoun who or that is used:

I know the guy who (that) you have mentioned.

If the antecedent denotes a thing, the pronoun which or that is used:

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I have already read the magazine which (that) you gave me last week.

But only which is used if preceded by a preposition:

The house in which we lived was not far from the bank.

That can replace any relative pronoun except whose.

Whom can be used to link an attributive clause to the main clause when the relative pronoun is not the subject of the relative clause:

Is that the person who (whom) you invited?

Whom is used mainly in formal contexts. In spoken English it is often replaced by who or that:

We are happy to greet our friends whom we haven't seen so long. They are the friends who (that) I told you about.

If a relative pronoun is an object of the clause it can be left out:

I know the people who (whom) you talk about. I know the people you talk about.

Whose has possessive meaning. It refers to the subject of an attributive clause and cannot be left out:

We looked at the house whose roof was shining in the rain. It is interesting to meet a writer whose books you like to read.

CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS

Conjunctive pronouns are who, what, whose, which. They refer back to a person or thing and link a subordinate (subject, object, predicative) clause to a main clause:

Subject clause - What I am going to do is none of your business.

Object clause - I don't know who told you this thing. Predicative clause - The question is which of us is to do it.

In clauses conjunctive pronouns perform different functions. They can be used as subject, object, predicative, or attribute:

Subject - Do you know who did it? Object - Give him what he wants.

Predicative - Nobody knows what he really is.

Attribute - It's not really important whose advice you follow. The question is which way to take.

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THE ADJECTIVE

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES

Adjectives describe qualities of objects referred to by nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases.

According to their meaning adjectives can be classified into qualitative and relative.

Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of persons, things, phenomena directly (soft, large, sweet, sour, pretty).

Relative adjectives denote qualities through their relation to materials, place, time, or action (wooden, Indian, daily, preparatory).

If an adjective modifies a noun, it usually precedes it. If it modifies a pronoun, it usually follows it: a warm coat, something warm.

In the sentence they are used as attribute, predicative and objective predicative:

Attribute - There is a green book on the table.

Predicative - The book is interesting. Objective predicative - They left the door open.

When two or more adjectives occur before a noun the following word order is observed.

1)First comes an adjective with general meaning and an adjective with specific meaning follows it e.g. a large French car.

2)First comes an adjective expressing opinion and a descriptive adjective follows it e.g. a wonderful warm day.

Here is a general order of adjectives:

1)size 2) shape 3) colour 4) origin 5) material 6) use + NOUN:

small round Spanish silver serving dishes, large white clouds

If adjectives precede the noun they modify, no conjunction is necessary: They came to a terrifying, dark, gloomy clearing in the wood.

If the conjunction ‘and’ is used, it emphasizes the final adjective and can change the usual order of adjectives, e.g.

They came to a dark, gloomy and terrifying clearing.

If adjectives describe qualities that can be measured, they can be modified with adverbs very, quite, fairly, rather, terribly, completely, utterly, and others:

It’s a fairly exciting film. The story is rather dull.

MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ADJECTIVES

Morphologically adjectives can be divided into simple, derivative and compound. Simple adjectives have neither prefixes nor suffixes: good, bad, green, sad, etc. Derivative adjectives can have the following suffixes:

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-able

movable

-en

wooden

-less

useless

-al

paternal

-ent

intelligent

-like

childlike

-ate

immaculate

-ful

careful

-ory

obligatory

-an

Anglican

-ish

childish

-ous

curious

-ant

fragrant

-ist

pacifist

-some

handsome

-ary

imaginary

-ive

impressive

-wise

streetwise

-ed

crooked

-ic

synthetic

-y,-ly

misty, daily

They can have the following prefixes:

un-

unusual

pre-

prewar

in- /im- /ir-

incorrect, impossible,

post-

postwar

irregular

dis-

dishonest

pro-

pro-American

non-

non-descriptive

anti-

antinuclear

Compound adjectives are built from two or more stems. Stems of different parts of speech can form adjectives:

noun stem + adjective stem	night-black
noun stem + participle stem	self-centered
adverb stem + participle stem	well-done
adjective stem + adjective stem	dark-blue
adjective stem + noun stem + suffix -ed	broad-shouldered
numeral stem + noun stem + suffix -ed	two-wheeled
adverb stem + noun stem + suffix -ed	overpopulated

DEGREES OF COMPARISON

Qualitative adjectives have the grammatical category of degrees of comparison. There are three degrees: positive, comparative and superlative. The comparative degree is used to compare some common feature of two or more things or people in terms of degree or quantity. The superlative degree is used to single out a thing or person as being special in relation to others.

She is smarter than you think. He is the strongest boy in our group.

Comparatives can also have the meaning of “more than average”:

There will be an additional class for slower learners.

The definite article is used with the adjective in the comparative degree if we compare two objects:

I know the elder of the two sisters.

When the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree preceded by the indefinite article, an extremely high degree of quality is meant; the idea of comparison is not expressed in these cases.

This was a most delicious dinner.

The degrees of comparison are built in synthetic, analytical and suppletive ways. There are also adjectives with irregular forms of degrees of comparison.

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1. Synthetic way

The comparative degree is built by adding the inflection -er; the superlative degree is built by adding the inflection -est to the stem:

dark - darker - darkest

The following adjectives build the degrees of comparison according to this pattern:

- monosyllabic adjectives and adjectives of two syllables ending in -y,-ow, -er, - ure, -le, e.g.

long – longer - longest funny -funnier - funniest narrow -narrower - narrowest clever - cleverer - cleverest mature - maturer - maturest simple - simpler - simplest

The adjectives ending in -ow, -er, -ure, -le can also have analytical forms (more narrow, more mature, etc.).

- some common two-syllable adjectives, e.g.

common - commoner - commonest commonmore common - most common handsome - handsomer - handsomest handsome - more handsome - most handsome quiet - quieter - quietest

quiet - more quiet - most quiet

- adjectives of two syllables which have the stress on the final syllable, e.g. polite - politer - politest

Note: One-syllable adjectives ending in –ed and the adjectives real, right and wrong have analytical forms:

Now your story sounds more real.

Spelling rules

-If the adjective ends in a consonant preceded by a stressed short vowel, the consonant is doubled, e.g. sad - sadder - saddest, big - bigger - biggest.

-If the adjective ends in -y, preceded by a consonant, -y is changed into -i before - er and -est, e.g. busy - busier - busiest, happy - happier - happiest.

-If the adjective ends in -e, the -e is dropped before -er and –est, e.g. white – whiter

–whitest.

2. Analytical way

Polysyllabic adjectives build the forms of the degrees of comparison with the help of the adverb more/most, e.g.

important - more important - most important interesting - more interesting - most interesting

The adjectives real, right, wrong and like have analytical forms:

He is more like his father than his brother is. This explanation seems more real.

3. Suppletive way

The adjectives good and bad have suppletive forms of the degrees of comparison:

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