9. Semantic-transformational model (definition, example, stages, pros and cons).

Semantic-transformational model postulates the identity of basic notions and nuclear structures. Translator makes a travel from the SL to some interlingual level of equivalence and then to the TL.

Stages:

analysis: SL original structures → SL nuclear structures, SL idiomatic language → SL basic notions — John is a proud owner of a new car: John + proud + owner + new + car, John has a new car. He is proud;

translation: SL nuclear structures → TL nuclear structures, SL basic notions → TL basic notions — Джон (он, мужчина…) + гордиться (радоваться, быть счастливым…) + владелец (обладатель…) + (новый, только что купленный…) + машина (автомобиль…), У Джона новая машина. Он гордится ей;

synthesis: TL nuclear structures → TL terminal structures, TL basic notions → TL idiomatic language — Джон гордится своей новой машиной. Джон — счастливый обладатель нового автомобиля.

Advantages: doesn’t ignore extralinguistic context, can be used in teaching, in machine translation (there are less mistakes, than with transformational model).

10. Transformations

Transformation — a way of translation, which can be used when there is no regular equivalent or it can't be used in a certain context conditions; it deals only with the form and the meaning of the SL unit, but not with its effect upon the receptor.

There are four types of transformations: imitations, lexical (semantic) transformations, grammatical transformations, complex (lexical and grammatical) transformations.

Imitations (not exactly transformation, because nothing is really transformed, it only imitate the form of the ST word):

transcription (represents the pronunciation — eau de cologne – одеколон);

transliteration (represents the spelling — London – Лондон);

calque (translation by parts — extralinguistic – внеязыковой).

Grammatical transformations (morphological or syntactical changes in translated units):

replacement (changes in grammatical category — passive voice → active voice, noun number category, nominal expression → verbal one);

transposition (word order change so that it could sounds more naturally in TL);

sentence partitioning (replacement of a simple sentence in the source text with a complex sentence (with some clauses), or a complex sentence with several independent sentences in the target text for structural, semantic or stylistic reasons);

sentence integration (making one sentence out of two or more, or convert a complex sentence into a simple one);

zero translation (omission of the grammatical category: articles).

Lexical transformations (changes in the semantic core of a translated word):

substitution (depends on word combinability: молодой → [человек] — young, [картофель] — new);

specification (wider meaning → narrower meaning: get the papers — купить газеты);

generalization (narrower meaning → wider meaning: stare — смотреть);

(?)differentiation (parallel meaning: bamboo curtain – железный занавес);

modulation (logical development of the notion expressed by the word: outside — на улице).

Complex transformations:

explication (rewording the meaning into another structure so that the receptor will have a better understanding of the phrase; accompanied with addition: nine-to-five job — работаю с 9 до 17)

(?)reduction (omission, implication; giving up communicatively irrelevant words);

antonymic translation (from the contrary angle: the inferiority of friendly troops – превосходство сил противника);

compensation (deliberate change of the word or structure by another one because the exact equivalent of the target language word or phrase is unable to produce the same impact upon the receptor: Don’t trouble trouble until trouble troubles you. – Во дворе трава, на траве дрова.)