1. Translate into Russian.

1. He says that he lives in London. 2. He says that he lived in London. 3. He said that he lived in London. 4. He said that he had lived in London. 5. He said that he would live in London. 6. He said that she might live in London. 7. He said that she might have lived in London. 8. He says that he is leaving for London. 9. He said that he was leaving for London. 10. I am sure that he always keeps his promise. 11. I am sure that he will keep his promise.12. I was sure that he would keep his promise. 13. I am sure that he must keep his promise. 14. I was sure that he had to keep his promise. 15. I am sure that he can keep his promise. 16. I was sure that he could keep his promise. 17. Were you sure that he had kept his promise? 18. He said that she might keep her promise. 19. He said that she might have kept her promise. 20. He says that she may keep her promise. 21. He says that she may have kept her promise.

2. Change the main clause to the past and make necessary changes in the subordinate clause.

1. He says that he will finish the project in May. 2. He says that he must finish the project in May. 3. He says that he can finish the project in May. 4. He says that he finished the project in May. 5. He thinks she is going to win the award. 6. I hear that you’re your friend has accepted a proposal. 7. The student is asking the professor when the class will have a test. 8. The professor says that we must look through the whole article. 9. Mary says that he may be at the lecture. 10. Mary says that he may have been at the lecture. 11. He says that he is busy. 12. He says that he was busy. 13. He thinks that the article will be much spoken about. 14. He says that the article is much spoken about. 16. He says that the article was much spoken about. 17. He says that the article is still being much spoken about.

3. Practice the following according to the pattern.

Pattern: He studies mathematics.

What did he (she) say?

He (She) said that he studied mathematics.

1. I hope to pass the examination. 2. We are looked at. 3. I have never been to Great Britain. 4. I made no mistakes in the last test. 5. I haven’t read many English books. 6. I didn’t send e-mail. 7. My friend is good at mathematics. 8. I don’t feel tired. 9. My friend is a brilliant student. 10. I haven’t seen her for a long time. 11. My friend goes to bed early. 12. I shall read for my credit-test in English. 13. I’ll be present at the lecture. 14. I’ll make notes of the lecture. 15. I am never late for the classes. 16. I must go now. 17. You may stay if you like. 18. I can’t hear what the lecturer is saying. 19. You must be more attentive at the lesson. 20. Don’t interrupt me. 21. Don’t be late. 22. Give me your dictionary, please.

4. Practice the following according to the pattern.

Pattern: Where do you live?

What did he (she) ask?

He (She) asked where you lived.

1. What’s the time? 2. Do you speak English? 3. How old are you? 4. Are you a first-year student? 5. Have you passed your exams? 6. How much time does it take you to get to the University? 7. What are you doing? 8. Who discovered the X-rays? 9. Do you come to the University on foot? 10. Where are you going to spend your holidays? 11. Have you got a computer? 12. Who invented the computer? 13. Where have you been? 14. How many months does the term last? 15. What place are you from? 16. Did you come in time? 7. What are your parents? 8. Can you compile programs? 9. Are you tired? 10. Have you attended the yesterday’s lecture? 11. Why did you miss the lecture? 12. Are you busy?

TEXT

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

The instructions must be written according to a set of rules. These rules are the foundation of a programming language. A programming language must convey the logical steps of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the CPU can interpret and follow the instructions.

There are a lot of programming languages. The most common of them are COBOL, FORTRAN, PL/I, RPG, BASIC, PASCAL.

COBOL was the most widely used business-oriented programming language. Its name is an acronym for Common Business-Oriented Language. It was designed to solve problems that are oriented toward data handling and input-output operations. COBOL can perform arithmetic operations as well, but its greatest flexibility is data handling. COBOL was also designed as a self-documenting language. Self-documenting languages are those that do not require a great deal of explanation in order to be understood by someone reading the program instructions. The self-documenting aspect of COBOL is made possible by its sentencelike structure and maximum symbolic field-name length of 30 characters. With a field-name length to 30 characters, the name can clearly identify the field and its purpose.

The FORTRAN IV language is oriented toward solving problems of mathematical nature. The name FORTRAN comes from the combination of the words formula translation. The version of FORTRAN IV was designed as algebra-based programming language. Any formula or those mathematical relationships that can be expressed algebraically can easily be expressed as a FORTRAN instruction. FORTRAN is the most commonly used language for scientific applications.

PL/I stands for Programming Language. It was designed as a general-purpose language incorporating features similar to COBOL for data handling instructions and features similar to FORTRAN for mathematical instructions. PL/I is much more than a combination of the good features of both COBOL and FORTRAN, as it has many capabilities that are unique. Yet, although PL/I is one of the most versatile and the most powerful of the programming languages, it is not the most commonly used.

RPG II is a business-oriented language. The name stands for report program generator. RPG is considerably different from other programming languages. It is a large prewritten program. The programmer simply indicates the options within the master program that are to be used. The latest version of RPG called RPG II greatly improved the language and gave it additional capabilities. RPG has advantage over COBOL as it requires less training for a programmer.

BASIC is an acronym for beginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code. It was developed in Dartmouth College as an easy-to-learn programming language for students and inexperienced programmers. Its key design goal is simplicity. BASIC has become a very popular language in systems where many users share the use of a computer through terminals and it has become a universal language for personal computers.

PASCAL was invented in 1970 by Professor Niklaus Wirth of Zurich, Switzerland. It was named after the mathematician Braise Paskal, who invented one of the earliest practical calculators. PASCAL is a mathematically oriented programming language and, as such, is most commonly used in mathematics, engineering, and computer science departments of colleges and universities. PASCAL has been implemented on several different computers including microcomputers.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations, transcribe them

1. convey (v.)

2. acronym (n.)

3. design (v.)

4. flexibility(n.)

5. maximum (adj.)

6. character (n.)

7. algebraically (adv.)

8. capability (n.)

9. unique (adj.)

10. versatile (adj.)

11. option (n.)

12. advantage (n.)

13. capability (n.)

14. terminal (n.)

2. Give English equivalents of:

1. набор правил

2. языки программирования

3. логические ступени (шаги)

4. план программы

5. таким образом

6. блок управления

7. интерпретировать инструкции

8. следовать инструкциям

9. язык для (программирования) экономических задач

10. решать задачи

11. обработка данных (работа с данными)

12. операции ввода-вывода

13. выполнять арифметические действия

14. требовать объяснения

15. структура, подобная предложениям

16. длина имени поля

17. идентифицировать поле и его цели

18. сочетание слов

19. язык программирования, основанный на алгебре

20. математическая связь (соотношение)

21. выражаться алгебраически

22. для научных применений

23. язык общего назначения

24. включать черты

25. подобный

26. значительно отличаться

27. основная программа

28. самая последняя версия

29. улучшить язык

30. дополнительные возможности

31. иметь преимущество над

32. легкоизучаемый язык программирования

33. непрофессиональный программист

34. основная цель

35. универсальный язык

36. математически–ориентированный язык программирования

37. как таковой

3. Read and translate the text.

4. Odd the definitions out.

1. A programming language is a set of rules that a programmer uses in compiling a program for a computer.

2. A programming language is a symbolic language invented only for mathematical operations.

3. A programming language is a language designed for specific purposes.

4. A programming language is a language conveying the logical steps of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the CPU can interpret and follow the instructions.

5. A programming language is a language designed for the programmers to compile programs.

6. A programming language is a language used for logical steps of the program plan.

7. A programming language is a language designed mainly for input-output operations.

5. Match A and B

A

COBOL is… .

FORTRAN is… .

PL/I is… .

RPG is… .

BASIC is… .

PASCAL is… .

B

• business-oriented programming language

• machine -oriented programming language

• algebra-based programming language

• mathematically oriented programming language

• general-purpose programming language

• beginners- oriented programming language

• self-documenting programming language

• the most versatile programming language

• the most powerful programming language

• easy-to-learn programming language

• universal language for personal computers

• widely used

• not widely used

6. Continue the sentences with the detailed information on the types of programming languages.

1. At the lecture the professor told the students that COBOL… .

2. At the lecture the professor explained the students that the FORTRAN IV… .

3. At the lecture the professor also explained the students that PL/I… .

4. At the lecture the professor also explained the students that PL/I… .

5. At the lecture the professor informed the students that RPG II… .

6. At the lecture the professor said that BASIC… .

7. At the lecture the professor remarked that PASCAL … .

UNIT 15

ИНФИНИТИВ

(THE INFINITIVE)

Инфинитив представляет собой неличную форму глагола, которой в русском языке соответствует неопределенная форма глагола.

Инфинитив используется с частицей to. Но после некоторых глаголов и словосочетаний инфинитив употребляется без частицы to: see, watch, hear, feel, make (заставлять), let, must, can/could, may/might, shall/should, will/would, would rather, would sooner, had better.

ФОРМЫ ИНФИНИТИВА

TENSE	ACTIVE	PASSIVE
Indefinite	to write	to be written
Continuous	to be writing	----
Perfect	to have written	to have been written

КОНСТРУКЦИИ С ИНФИНИТИВОМ

1. Объектный падеж с инфинитивом / сложное дополнение (The Objective Infinitive Construction)

RULE	TRANSLATION	EXAMPLES
В этой конструкции инфинитив находится в связи с существитель-ным в общем падеже или местоимением в объектном падеже. Конструкция имеет функцию сложного до-полнения. Используется с глаголами see, hear, feel, find, watch, observe, consider, believe, know, suppose, think, expect, want, wish, mean, intend, like, dislike, love, hate, allow, order, make (заставлять) и др.	Переводится, как прави-ло, с помощью допол-нительного придаточ-ного предложения.	I haven’t heard her study at the University. Я не слышал, что она учится в университете. I want you to prepare for the test well. Я хочу, чтобы вы хорошо подготовились к тесту.

2. Именительный падеж с инфинитивом / Сложное подлежащее (The Subjective Infinitive Construction / the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction)

RULE	TRANSLATION	EXAMPLES
В этой конструкции инфинитив находится в связи с подлежащим, которое может быть выражено существи-тельным в общем паде-же или местоимением в именительном падеже. Конструкция имеет фун-кцию сложного подле-жащего. Используется с глаголами see, hear, feel, find, watch, consider, believe, know, think, suppose, expect, say, report, make (застав-лять), seem, happen, prove, turn out и др. Также используется с выражениями to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.	Переводится, как прави-ло, сложноподчиненным предложением, главное предложение которого – неопределенно-личное предложение, такое как: говорят, сообщают, считают, известно и т.д.; придаточное пред-ложение вводится сою-зом что.	They were heard to be discussing something. Слышно было, что они что-то обсуждают. The experiment proved to be a failure. Эксперимент оказался неудачным. She seemed to have made a decision. Кажется, что она приняла решение. She is likely to participate in the conference. Похоже, она собирается принимать участие в конференции. He is sure to get an excellent mark. Он несомненно получит отличную оценку.

3. Инфинитивный оборот с предлогом for (The for-to-Infinitive Construction)

RULE	TRANSLATION	EXAMPLES
В этой конструкции инфинитиву пред-шествует существи-тельное или место-имение с предлогом for.	Переводится: 1) сложноподчинен-ным предложением, с союзами что, что-бы, когда; 2) неопределенной формой глагола; 3) существительным в дательном падеже + неопределенная форма глагола.	He waited for her to speak. Он ждал, когда она заговорит. The article was too difficult for him to understand. Статья была слишком труд-ной, чтобы он мог понять ее. This is for you to decide. Вам решать. It is difficult for the students to write it. Студентам трудно это написать.

ФУНКЦИИ ИНФИНИТИВА

FUNCTION	EXAMPLES
1. Подлежащее	To acquire knowledge is my first duty. Приобретать знания – это мой первый долг.
2. Часть сказуемого	My first duty is to acquire knowledge. Мой первый долг – приобрести знания. We must read scientific articles. Мы должны читать научные статьи.
3. Дополнение	I learned to solve arithmetic problems at school. Я научился решать арифметические задачки в школе.
4. Часть сложного дополнения	We expect him to pass his exams successfully. Мы ожидаем, что он сдаст экзамены успешно.
5. Определение	Here is an interesting article to read. Вот статья, которую интересно прочитать.
6. Обстоятельство цели	Laws were not made to be broken. Законы были созданы не для того, чтобы их нарушать. In order to pass exams successfully I have to study much. Для того чтобы сдать успешно экзамены, нужно много заниматься.
7. Обстоятельство следствия или результата	She was nervous as if not ready to answer the question. Она нервничала, как будто не была готова ответить на вопрос. This idea was too difficult to understand it. Эта идея была слишком сложна, чтобы ее понять.
8. Вводная часть предложения	To tell the truth, I was not sure. По правде говоря, я не был уверен.

EXERCISES

1. Translate into Russian paying attention to the tense and voice distinctions of the infinitives.

1. I am glad to get this book. 2. I am glad to have got this book. 3. I am glad to be given this book. 4. I am glad to have been given this book. 5. I was glad to have been given this book. 6. These books must be returned to the library today. 7. The student must be listening to the lecture now. 8. We were happy to have been helped with this work. 9. I am sorry to have done it. 10. I dislike you to be reading like that. 11. You may continue to read. 12. He may be working at his English now. 13. We were too tired to continue solving the problem. 14. The book is likely to be published soon. 15. The student was clever enough to solve any mathematical problem. 16. The professor allowed the problem to be solved at home.

2. Insert to where necessary.

1. I'm sorry (disappoint) you, but I can’t (let) you (continue) your experiment in this laboratory. 2. He refused (accept) my help. 3. I’m afraid you won’t be able (do) it yourself. 4. You ought (go) now. 5. I’d rather (begin) to prepare for the test. 6. I’ll be delighted (discuss) it with you. 7. There is nothing (do) but wait for the results of the discussion. 8. You’d better (consult) your supervisor. 9. The professor made the student (think) over the problem again. 10. You must (prepare) for your exams in advance. 11. I am happy (hear) the result of the test having been done at the previous lesson. 12. You may (use) a dictionary. 13. You are (use) a dictionary. 14. I am used (get up) early in order not (be) late for my classes.

3. Point out the Objective–with-the-Infinitive Construction. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. They wish the article to be published next month. 2. I know him to have been a brilliant student. 3. We know the report to have consisted of two parts. 4. We found them to be interested in the computers. 5. He expected them to come to the same decision. 6. The scientist noticed the temperature to be falling very quickly. 5. We consider Shannon to be a founder of information theory. 7. We expect this equation to have the same solution as the preceding one. 6. He watched the student prove the theorem. 7. Under these circumstances we expect the variables to be negative. 8. We found some programming languages to be used for specific purposes.

4. Point out the Subjective Infinitive Construction. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. English is considered to belong to a branch of German languages. 2. The future is expected to bring a great many new applications of semiconductors. 3. This approach seems to satisfy the scientist. 4. Lobachevsky is known to have written much on the problems of education. 5. This new device is told to work well. 6. They are known to have made a lot of discoveries. 7. These methods seem to be quite independent of one another. 8. The computer is likely to be repaired. 9. This method is certain to be used. 10. The conference is believed to be interesting.