19. 8. Give all possible English equivalents of the following words.

20. Make use of the lexical material of the previous texts: стверджувати; розрізняти; сприяти; методика; отримувати; дослідження; шукати; мета; припущення; провідний; основа; щастя , блаженство; прагнути щось зробити; бути залученим (до).

21. 9. Look through the text and write out the key philosophical terms. Give their definitions .

22. 10. Retell the text: a) in detail b) in brief .

23. 11. Write an annotation of the text.

24. 12. Write 10 questions covering the basic points of the text .

26. Unit X

27. Assignments:

28. 1. Listen to the text and give the gist of the text in writing.

29. 2. Read and translate the text.

30. Modern Philosophy

31. A great cultural movement in Europe called the Renaissance overlapped the end of the Middle Ages and formed a transition between medieval and modern philosophy. The Renaissance began in Italy and lasted from about 1300 to about 1600. It was a time of intellectual reawakening stemming from the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman culture. During the Renaissance, major advances occurred in such sciences as astronomy, physics, and mathematics. Scholars called humanists stressed the importance of human beings and the study of classical literature as a guide to understanding life. Emphasis on science and on humanism led to changes in the aims and techniques of philosophic inquiry. Scholasticism declined, and philosophy was freed of its ties to medieval theology.

32. One of the earliest philosophers to support the scientific method was Francis Bacon of England. Most historians consider Bacon and Rene Descartes of France to be the founders of modern philosophy. Bacon wrote two influential works, The Advancement of Learning (1605) and Novum Organum (1620). He stated that knowledge was power and that knowledge could be obtained only by the inductive method of investigation. Bacon imagined a new world of culture and leisure that could be gained by inquiry into the laws and processes of nature. In describing this world, he anticipated the effects of advances in science, engineering, and technology.

33. Rationalism was a philosophic outlook that arose in the 1600's. The basic idea of rationalism is that reason is superior to experience as a source of knowledge and that the validity of sense perception must be proved from more certain principles. The rationalists tried to determine the nature of the world and of reality by deduction from premises themselves established as certain a priori. They also stressed the importance of mathematical procedures. The leading rationalists were Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz.

34. Descartes was a mathematician as well as a philosopher. He invented analytic geometry. Descartes's basic idea was to establish a secure foundation for the sciences, a foundation of the sort he had found for mathematics. He was thus much concerned with the foundations of knowledge, and he started philosophy on its persistent consideration of epistemological problems. Descartes was a mechanist--that is, he regarded all physical phenomena as connected mechanically by laws of cause and effect. Descartes's philosophy generated the problem of how mind and matter are related.

35. Spinoza constructed a system of philosophy on the model of geometry. He attempted to derive philosophic conclusions from a few central axioms (supposedly self-evident truths) and definitions. Spinoza did not view God as some superhuman being who created the universe. He identified God with the universe. Spinoza was also a mechanist, regarding everything in the universe as determined. Spinoza's main aim was ethical. He wanted to show how people could be free, could lead reasonable and thus satisfying lives, in a deterministic world.

36. Leibniz believed that the actual world is only one of many possible worlds. He tried to show how the actual world is the best of all possible worlds in an effort to justify the ways of God to humanity. Thus, he attempted to solve the problem of how a perfect and all-powerful God could have created a world filled with so much suffering and evil. Leibniz and Sir Isaac Newton, an English scientist, independently developed calculus. Leibniz' work in mathematics anticipated the development of symbolic logic--the use of mathematical symbols and operations to solve problems in logic.

37. Empiricism emphasizes the importance of experience and sense perception as the source and basis of knowledge. The first great empiricist was John Locke of England in the 1600's. George Berkeley of Ireland and David Hume of Scotland further developed empiricism in the 1700's.

38. Locke tried to determine the origin, extent, and certainty of human knowledge in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). Locke argued that there are no innate ideas--that is, ideas people are born with. He believed that when a person is born, the mind is like a blank piece of paper. Experience is therefore the source of all ideas and all knowledge.

39. Berkeley dealt with the question "If whatever a human being knows is only an idea, how can one be sure that there is anything in the world corresponding to that idea?" Berkeley answered that "to be is to be perceived". No object exists, he said, unless it is perceived by some mind. Material objects are ideas in the mind and have no independent existence.

40. Hume extended the theories of Locke and Berkeley to a consistent skepticism about almost everything. He maintained that everything in the mind consists of impressions and ideas, with ideas coming from impressions. Every idea can be traced to and tested by some earlier impression. According to Hume, we must be able to determine from what impression we derived an idea for that idea to have meaning. An apparent idea that cannot be traced to an impression must be meaningless. Hume also raised the question of how we can know that the future will be like the past--that the laws of nature will continue to operate as they have. He claimed that we can only know that events have followed certain patterns in the past. We cannot therefore be certain that events will continue to follow those patterns.

41. The Age of Reason was a period of great intellectual activity that began in the 1600's and lasted until the late 1700's. The period is also called the Enlightenment. Philosophers of the Age of Reason stressed the use of reason, as opposed to the reliance on authority and scriptural revelation.

42. For them, reason provided means of attaining the truth about the world and of ordering human society to assure human well-being. The leading philosophers included Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. They also included Jean Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, and other members of a group of French philosophers.

43. Locke's philosophic ideas were characteristic of the Age of Reason. Locke sought to determine the limits of human understanding and to discover what can be known within those limits that will serve as a guide to life and conduct. He tried to show that people should live by the principles of toleration, liberty, and natural rights. His Two Treatises of Government (1690) provided the philosophic base for the Revolutionary War in America and the French Revolution in the late 1700's.

44. The philosophy of Immanuel Kant, a great German philosopher of the late 1700's, became the foundation for nearly all later developments in philosophy. Kant's philosophy is called critical philosophy or transcendental philosophy.

45. Kant was stimulated by the skeptical philosophy of Hume to try to bring about a synthesis of rationalism and empiricism. In his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Kant tried to provide a critical account of the powers and limits of human reason, to determine what is knowable and what is unknowable. Kant concluded that reason can provide knowledge only of things as they appear to us, never of things as they are in themselves. Kant believed that the mind plays an active role in knowing and is not a mere recorder of facts presented by the senses. The mind does this through basic categories or forms of understanding, which are independent of experience and without which our experience would not make sense. Through such categories and the operations of the mind, working on sense experience, we can have knowledge, but only of things that can be experienced.

46. Kant criticized the traditional arguments for the existence of God. He argued that they are all in error because they make claims that go beyond the possibility of experience and thus go beyond the powers of human reason. In his Critique of Practical Reason (1788), Kant argued that practical reason (reason applied to practice) can show us how we ought to act and also provides a practical reason for believing in God, though not a proof that God exists.

47. Philosophy in the 1800's

48. Kant's philosophy stimulated various systems of thought in the 1800's, such as those of G. W. F. Hegel and Karl Marx of Germany. Hegel developed a theory of historical change called dialectic, in which the conflict of opposites results in the creation of a new unity and then its opposite. Hegel's theory was transformed by Marx into dialectical materialism. Marx believed that only material things are real. He stated that all ideas are built on an economic base. He believed that the dialectic of conflict between capitalists and industrial workers will lead to the establishment of communism, which he called socialism, as an economic and political system.

49. Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philosopher, was an atheist who proclaimed in Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883-1885) that "God is dead."

50. Nietzsche meant that the idea of God had lost the power to motivate and discipline large masses of people. He believed that people would have to look to some other idea to guide their lives. Nietzsche predicted the evolution of the superman, who would be beyond the weakness of human beings and beyond the merely human appeals to morality.

51. He regarded such appeals as appeals to weakness, not strength. He felt that all behavior is based on the will to power--the desire of people to control others and their own passions. The superman would develop a new kind of perfection and excellence through the capacity to realize the will to power through strength, rather than weakness.

52. The dominant philosophy in England during the 1800's was utilitarianism, developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. The utilitarians maintained that the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people is the test of right and wrong. They argued that all existing social institutions, especially law and government, must be transformed to satisfy the test of greatest happiness. In The Subjection of Women (1869), Mill wrote that the legal subordination of women to men ought to be replaced by "a principle of perfect equality". That idea was revolutionary in Mill's time.

53. Philosophy in the 1900's has seen five main movements predominate. Two of these movements, existentialism and phenomenology, have had their greatest influence in the countries on the mainland of western Europe. The three other movements, pragmatism, logical positivism, and philosophical analysis, have been influential chiefly in the United States and Great Britain.

54. Existentialism became influential in the mid-1900's. World War II (1939-1945) gave rise to widespread feelings of despair and of separation from the established order. These feelings led to the idea that people have to create their own values in a world in which traditional values no longer govern. Existentialism insists that choices have to be made arbitrarily by individuals, who thus create themselves, because there are no objective standards to determine choice. The most famous of the existentialist philosophers is the French author Jean-Paul Sartre.

55. Phenomenology was developed by the German philosopher Edmund Husserl. Husserl conceived the task of phenomenology, hence the task of philosophy, as describing phenomena--the objects of experience--accurately and independently of all assumptions derived from science. He thought that this activity would provide philosophic knowledge of reality.

56. Pragmatism, represented in the 1900's by William James and John Dewey of the United States, maintains knowledge is subordinate to action. The meaning and truth of ideas are determined by their relation to practice.

57. Logical positivism, developed in Vienna, Austria, in the 1920's, believes philosophy should analyze the logic of the language of science. It regards science as the only source of knowledge and claims metaphysics is meaningless. It bases this claim on the principle of verifiability, by which a statement is meaningful only if it can be verified by sense experience.

58. Logical positivism, based on modern developments in logic and an empiricism like Hume’s, was the joint result of English thinkers like Russell and an Austrian group called the Vienna circle, whose most influential member, Ludwig Wittgenstein, had been a student of Russell’s at Cambridge. The English and Austrian positivists and linguistic philosophers challenged any form of metaphysical thinking and insisted that something could be said to be true if (and only if) it could be verified by logical or scientific procedures. No metaphysical claim, they insisted, could meet this test.

59. Philosophical analysis generally tries to solve philosophic problems through analysis of language or concepts.Some versions of this philosophy attempt to show that traditional philosophic problems dissolve--that is, disappear--on proper analysis of the terms in which they are expressed. Other versions use linguistic analysis to throw light on, not dissolve, traditional philosophic problems. The most influential philosophers practicing philosophic analysis have been Bertrand Russell of England and Ludwig Wittgenstein, who was born in Austria but studied and taught in England.

61. 3.Interpret the following in English:

62. a)to overlap b)to stem from c) major advances occur d)to be freed of ties e) to anticipate the effects f) the validity of sense perception g) laws of cause and effect h)supposedly [sq'pqVzIdlI] i) suffering and evil j) calculus ['kxlkjVlqs] k)extent l) innate ideas m)to trace n) certain patterns o) to assure human well-being p) to bring about a synthesis of rationalism and empiricism q)to experience r)to predict s) a new kind of perfection and excellence t) capacity(ability,faculty) u) feelings of despair and of separation v) traditional values no longer govern w) the principle of verifiability ["verIfaIq'bIlItI]

63. 4.Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations: renaissance [rI'neIs(q)ns]; intellectual reawakening; to stress; the advancement of learning; a new world of culture and leisure ;premise; a secure foundation; persistent consideration; to derive; to justify the ways of God to humanity; to be perceived; a consistent skepticism; an apparent idea; scriptural ['skrIptS(q)rql] revelation ;the principles of toleration; a critical account; atheist ['eITIIst]; to motivate and discipline ['dIsIplIn]; the subjection of smb; arbitrarily ['Q:bItrqrIlI]; to challenge any form of metaphysical thinking

65. 5. Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and phrases .Use them in sentences of your own and situations from the text:

• частково збігатись(перекривати)

• походити (виникати)

• робити наголос

• звільнитися від зв’язків (тягаря)

• поширення освіти

• передчувати (передбачати) наслідки

• світогляд

• дійсність (чинність,обгрунтованість) чуттєвого сприйняття

• передумова

• надійний базис(основа)

• постійна(наполеглива) увага

• дослідити походження

• приблизно(ймовірно)

• страждання та лихо

• числення

• межі(обсяг)

• природжені ідеї (цебто такі , що не можуть бути віднайдені у досвіді)

• бути усвідомленим

• послідовний(логічно виважений) скептицизм

• простежувати

• певні моделі(схеми)

• доба Просвітництва(Просвіти)

• біблейське откровення

• академічний трактат(монографія)

• стимулювати

• критична оцінка(розмірковування)

• випробувати досвідом

• мотивувати

• здібність, природжена можливість, хист, схильність

• залежність від когось

• почуття відчаю та відокремленості

• довільно (випадково, свавільно)

• можливість здійснення контролю

• заперечувати(піддавати сумніву)

• 6. Make up a plan of the text in the form of statements (10 points).

• 7.Answer the following questions:

• 1.

• What did the humanists put emphasis on ?

• 2.How did the Renaissance influence the Middle Ages ?

• 3.Who are considered to be the founders of modern philosophy ?

• 4.What is Francis Bacon famous for ?

• 5.What is the basic idea of rationalism ?

• 6.What did Descartes invent ?

• 7.Was Gottfried Leibniz a rationalist ?

• 8.How did Descartes regard all physical phenomena ?

• 9.What was Spinoza's main aim ?

• 10.Characterize Leibniz' work in mathematics and philosophy.

• 11.What is symbolic logic ?

• 12.What is Locke’s outlook about inborn ideas ?

• 13.How did Berkeley estimate material objects ?

• 14.What idea is thought to be meaningless according to Hume ?

• 15.Define characteristic features of the Enlightenment.

• 16.Whose philosophic ideas were characteristic of the Age of Reason ?

• 17.What subdivision of things did Kant make ?

• 18.Does pure reason differ from practical reason ?

• 19.What’s the role of the mind according to Kant’s points of view ?

• 20.Whose theory did Marx transform ?

• 21.What idea did Nietzsche proclaim ?

• 22.What did utilitarians insist on ?

• 23.Name the cause of existentialism appearance ?

• 24.What movements predominated in philosophy in the 19^th century ?

• 25.What place has logical positivism allocated for language ?

• 26.What is said to be true as logical positivism proclaims ?

• 27.What unites logical positivism and philosophical analysis ?