Part 2 unit 8 Utility and Prices

Text A

Our basic needs are simple, but our additional individual wants are often very complex. Commodities of different kinds satisfy our wants in different ways. A banana, a bottle of medicine and a textbook satisfy very different wants. The banana cannot satisfy the same wants as the textbook.

This characteristic of satisfying a want is known in economics as its `utility'. Utility, however, should not be confused with usefulness. For example, a submarine may or may not be useful in time of peace, but it satisfies a want. Many nations want submarines. Economists say that utility determines 'the relationship between a consumer and a commodity'.

Utility varies between different people and between different nations. A vegetarian does not want meat, but may rate the utility of bananas very highly, while a meat-eater may prefer steak. A mountain-republic like Switzerland has little interest in submarines, while maritime nations rate them highly.

Utility varies not only in relation to individual tastes and to geography, but also in relation to time. In wartime, the utility of bombs is high, and the utility of pianos is low. Utility is therefore related to our decisions about priorities in production – particularly in a centrally-planned economy. The production of pianos falls sharply in wartime.

The utility of a commodity is also related to the quantity which is available to the consumer. If paper is freely available, people will not be so interested in buying too much of it. If there is an excess of paper, the relative demand for paper will go down. We say that the utility of a commodity therefore decreases as the consumer's stock of that commodity increases.

Exercise 1. Answer these questions, basing your answers on the text.

1. What is the difference between our basic needs and our additional wants?

2. What two ways are there of describing `utility’?

3. What example is used to show that utility varies from person to person?

4. What example is used to show that it varies from nation to nation?

5. What example is used to show that it varies from time to time?

6. What example is used to show that utility is related to quantity?

7. What can we say about the way in which utility decreases?

Exercise 2. Say whether these statements are true or false, and if they are false say why.

1. Our basic needs are complex.

2. Our wants are satisfied in much the same way by all commodities.

3. Usefulness should not be confused with utility.

4. Vegetarians rate the utility of meat very highly.

5. The Swiss nation is not particularly interested in submarines.

6. In wartime the utility of pianos is high.

7. In a centrally-planned economy, decisions about priorities are related to utility.

8. The demand for paper goes down if the quantity of paper increases.

Exercise 3. Contrast these pairs of sentences, using 'while'.

EXAMPLE: Switzerland has little interest in submarines. Maritime nations rate them highly.

i. Switzerland has little interest in submarines, while maritime nations rate them highly.

ii. Switzerland on the one hand has little interest in submarines, while maritime nations on the other (hand) rate them highly.

1. In peacetime bombs are not in very great demand. In wartime their utility is very high.

2. Bananas may satisfy one kind of want. Textbooks satisfy an entirely different need.

3. Meat-eaters may enjoy both beef and bananas. Vegetarians value only the bananas.

4. A product's utility may be very high in a certain part of the world. In a different part of the world its utility may be very low.

5. Some people may prefer to save their money and invest it in a secure and profitable scheme. Some may prefer to buy a particular commodity which they have wanted for a long time.

Exercise 4. Change these sentences in order to use 'should' with 'not'. This changes the statements into recommendations.

EXAMPLE: Utility is not to be confused with usefulness.

Utility should not be confused with usefulness.

1. The economic system is not to be studied in an unscientific way.

2. a communist government is not to be expected to concern itself with private profits.

3. The government of a capitalistic country is not to be expected to concern itself with detailed central planning.

4. A capitalistic system is not to be regarded as completely free of central planning.

5. These factors are not to be considered the most important in helping us to improve the quality of the service.

Exercise 5. Find single words in the text for which these words could be substituted.

a extra (1-2) d likes and dislikes (12-14) g amount (17-19)

b quality (5-7) e preferences (14-16) h goes down (18-22)

c coastal (9-13) f rapidly (15-17)

Text B

In most economic systems, the prices of the majority of goods and services do not change over short periods of time. In some systems it is of course possible for an individual to bargain over prices, because they are not fixed in advance. In general terms, however, the individual cannot change the prices of the commodities he wants. When planning his expenditure, he must therefore accept these fixed prices. He must also pay this same fixed price no matter how many units he buys. A consumer will go on buying bananas for as long as he continues to be satisfied. If he buys more, he shows that his satisfaction is still greater than his dislike of losing money. With each successive purchase, however, his satisfaction compensates less for the loss of money.

A point in time comes when the financial sacrifice is greater than the satisfaction of eating bananas. The consumer will therefore stop buying bananas at the current price. The bananas are unchanged; they are no better or worse than before. Their marginal utility to the consumer has, however, changed. If the price had been higher, he might have bought fewer bananas; if the price had been lower, he might have bought more.

It is clear from this argument that the nature of a commodity remains the same, but its utility changes. This change indicates that a special relationship exists between goods and services on the one hand, and a consumer and his money on the other hand. The consumer's desire for a commodity tends to diminish as he buys more units of that commodity. Economists call this tendency the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility.

Exercise 1. Answer these questions, basing your answers on the text.

1. Prices are fixed in most economic systems, but what is possible in some systems?

2. What is the individual generally unable to change?

3. Under what conditions will a consumer go on buying a commodity?

4. What does the consumer show by buying more bananas?

5. What happens with each successive purchase?

6. At what point will the consumer stop buying the commodity at the current price?

7. What remains unchanged with each purchase?

8. What has changed when this point is reached?

9. Under what conditions might he have bought more?

10. What does a consumer's desire tend to do?

Exercise 2. Say whether these statements are true or false, and if they are false say why.

1. In the majority of systems prices are fixed but in the minority it is possible to bargain.

2. It is generally possible for the individual to change the prices of the commodities he wants.

3. We know that a consumer's satisfaction is greater than his financial sacrifice if he goes on buying a commodity at the current price.

4. When a consumer becomes dissatisfied at paying the current price, he pays less.

5. The financial sacrifice becomes too great when the quality of the commodity gets worse.

6. The consumer will probably buy more if the price falls.

7. If the price rises, the consumer will probably buy less.

8. If the price remains the same, the consumer will reach a point when his sacrifice is greater than his satisfaction.

9. The utility of a product stays the same, but its nature changes.

10. The Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility is the name which economists give to the tendency for a consumer's desire to diminish as he buys more units.

Exercise 3. Make these sentences passive, omitting the agent phrase.

1. The government fixes the prices.

2. They fix the prices in advance.

3. He must pay the current price.

4. The commodity satisfies the consumer.

5. The government has changed the policy.

6. They have produced additional supplies for the men.

7. They have obtained various valuable minerals in that area.

8. Economists have classified the various economic systems.

9. Even in a dedicated capitalist economy the government plans certain things.

10. The committee prepared a special scheme.

Exercise 4. Change these sentences as in the example. The meaning does not change.

EXAMPLE: When he plans his expenditure, a consumer must accept fixed prices.

When planning his expenditure, a consumer must accept fixed prices.

1. When it prepares a new product, a company must spend a large amount of money.

2. When it decides production targets for a period of years, a government must establish its priorities very clearly.

3. When it makes a decision over the number of employees which will be needed, the management of a factory must consider everything very carefully.

4. When it tries to increase efficiency in production, a planning body should decide what factors are most important.

5. When they consider problems of distribution, businessmen should investigate all the methods currently in use and decide objectivity whether they can be improved.

Exercise 5. Change the listed words and phrases into agent nouns.

EXAMPLE: consume = consum + er = consumer

plan = plan + er = planner

a buy e bank i manage

b sell f mine j begin

c use g produce k breed

d work h organize l perform

m a man who breeds cattle p a man who produces whisky

n a man who owns a house q a man who manages a bank

o a man who pays tax

Supplement

Study this diagram about kinds of production and then answer the questions.

PRODUCTION

primary industries secondary industries tertiary industries

intermediate final

hunting engineering banking teaching

fishing building trading medicine

farming gas, electricity insurance defence

mining weaving transport acting

etc. etc. etc. etc.

1. What three types of production are there?

2. If primary relates to 'one', and secondary relates to 'two', what does tertiary relate to?

3. What two types of tertiary industry are there?

4. What type does farming belong to?

5. What types do these belong to: trading; teaching; building?

6. Which of these categories describes secondary industries? - (1) selling things; (2) making things; (3) growing things.

7. Which of these categories relates to both primary and secondary industries? - (1) providing goods; (2) providing services.

8. Which of these categories relates to the three activities of mining, engineering and building? - (1) heavy industries; (2) light industries.

Essential Vocabulary

1. utility корисність

2. usefulness застосовність; придатність

3. rate оцінювати

4. maritime приморський

5. demand попит

6. bargain торгуватися

7. expenditure витрата, витрачання

8. successive наступний, послідовний

9. argument доказ, аргументація

10. The Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility Закон спадної граничної корисності