Adrian Hastings - The construction of nationhood. ethnicity, religion, and nationalism

Page 222

4.R.W. Seton-Watson, The Southern Slav Question and the Hapsburg Monarchy (London, 1911), pp. 336 and 33940.

5.Harold Temperley, History of Serbia (London: G. Bell, 1917), pp. 1 and 3. Amazingly, Temperley listed the components of the Jugo-Slav race as follows: 'the Serbo-Croats of Croatia, the Serbs of Dalmatia, the Bosnians, Montenegrans and the Serbians of Serbia proper' (p. 2).

6.Hugh Seton-Watson, Nationalism Old and New, (Sydney University Press, 1965), p. 7.

7.Mateja Matejic, Biography of Saint Sava (Columbus, Ohio, 1976).

8.I have mostly followed the careful analysis in John V. Fine, The Late Medieval Balkans (University of Michigan Press, 1994), pp. 40827.

9.Thomas Emmert, Serbian Golgotha, Kosovo, 1389 (Columbia University Press, 1990), p. 46.

10.Noel Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History (London: Macmillan, 1994), pp. 55, 703.

11.See Wayne S. Vucinich and Thomas A. Emmert (eds.), Kosovo, Legacy of a Medieval Battle (University of Minnesota Press, 1991), especially Radmila J. Gorup, 'Kosovo and Epic Poetry', pp. 10921, and Vasa D. Mihailovich, 'The Tradition of Kosovo in Serbian Literature', pp. 14158.

12.Emmert, Serbian Golgotha, p. 128.

13.Ibid.

14.Ivo Banac, The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984), p. 100.

15.Ibid., p. 102.

16.Ibid., p. 81. Croatian nationalist scholars almost prove Karadzic right when, to distance Croatia from Serbia, they repudiate what is shared. Thus Guldescu

(The Croatian-Slavonian Kingdom, p. 276), declares Cakavian * 'the only really authentic Croatian speech', by implication denying the Croat authenticy of Stokavian*-speaking Dubrovnik. See also Bette Denich, 'Dismembering Yugoslavia: Nationalist Ideologies and the Symbolic Revival of Genocide', The American Ethnologist (May 1994), pp. 36790.

17.Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 12.

18.The extent of Serbia was to be defined not just by Stokavian but by the presence of the popular epic ballad, the pjesme, something in fact common to all the peoples of the area. Thus The Frontiers of Language and Nationality by Leon Dominian (New York: American Geographical Society, 1917) includes the following amazing passage: 'The pjesme voices Serbia's national aspirations once more in the storm and stress of new afflictions. Its accents ring so true, that the geographer, in search of Serbia's boundaries, tries in vain to discover a surer guide to delimita-

Page 223

tion. For Serbia extends as far as her folk-songs are heard. From the Adriatic to the Western walls of the Balkan ranges, from Croatia to Macedonia, the guzlar's ballad is the symbol of national solidarity. His tunes live within the hearts and upon the lips of every Serbian. The pjesme may therefore be fittingly considered the measure and index of a nationality whose fibre it has stirred. To make Serbian territory coincide with the regional extension of the pjesme implies the defining of the Serbian national area', p. 322.

19.R.G.D. Laffan, The Guardians of the Gate (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1918), p. 20.

20.Dominian, The Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe, p. 191.

21.Ibid., p. 182.

22.H.A.L. Fisher, A History of Europe (London: Edward Arnold, 1936), p. 1090.

23.In an address to the Norwegian Refugee Council, Kjell Arild Nilsen, Bosnia Report, 11, JuneAugust 1995, p. 4.

24.Branko Franolic, Croatian Glagolitic Printed Texts Recorded in the British Library General Catalogue (London: Croat Information Centre, 1994).

25.Carole Rogel, The Slovenes and Yugoslavism 18901914 (Columbia University Press, 1977).

26.We have already seen Serb examples of this. For a Croat example, claiming 'the Croatian character of Bosnia', see Francis Eterovich and Christopher Spalatin (eds.), Croatia, Land, People, Culture (University of Toronto Press, 1964).

27.Vinko Puljic, Suffering with Hope: Appeals, Addresses, Interviews (Zagreb: HKD Napredak, 1995), p. 8.

28.Ivan Lovrenovic, 'The Deconstruction of Bosnia', unpublished paper, p. 8.

29.Banac, The National Question in Yugoslavia, p. 132.

30.Mirko Grmek, Marc Gjidana and Neven Simac, Le nettoyage ethnique: Documents historiques sur une idéologie serbe (Paris: Fayard, 1993) provides the basic documentation covering both the nineteenth and the twentieth century.

31.Hugh Seton-Watson, Nationalism Old and New, 1965, p. 16. A close African parallel to this can be found in two remarks of President Banda of Malawi:

(1) 'So far as I am concerned, there is no Yao in this country; no Lomwe; no Sena; no Chewa; no Ngoni; no Nyakyusa; no Tonga; there are only "Malawians". That is all.' (2) 'I am a Chewa', Leroy Vail (ed.), The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (London: James Currey, 1989), p. 151.

32.Branka Magas, The Destruction of Yugoslavia (London: Verso, 1993), pp. xx, xii and xxiii.

Page 224

33.Philip J. Cohen, Serbia's Secret War: Propaganda and the Deceit of History (Texas A & M University Press, 1996).

34.Michael A. Sells, The Bridge Betrayed: Religion and Genocide in Bosnia (University of Califorma Press, 1996).

6

Some African Case Studies

1.Leroy Vail (ed.), The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (London: James Currey, 1989).

2.Terence Ranger and Olufemi Vaughan (eds.), Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa (London: Macmillan, 1993), pp. 62111, criticising his earlier 'The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa', in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 21162.

3.John Lonsdale, 'Moral Ethnicity and Political Tribalism', pp. 10330 of Preben Kaarsholm and Jan Hultin (eds.), Inventions and Boundaries: Historical and Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Ethnicity and Religion (Roskilde University Press, Denmark, 1994).

4.Compare P.T.W. Baxter's remarks about Oromo ethnic identity: 'In my experience Oromo exiles feel their sense of ethnic identity very, very strongly indeed; it really does have intense, even passionate, ''moral value" for them . . . the essence of Oromo identity is active involvement in Oromo cultural values through local ritual and social performances', 'Ethnic Boundaries and Development: Speculations on the Oromo Case', in Kaarsholm and Hultin, Inventions and Boundaries, pp. 24760.

5.I. Shalid, 'The Kebra Nagast in the Light of Recent Research', Le Muséon, vol. 89 (1976), pp. 13378.

6.Kay Kaufman Shelemay, 'The Musician and Transmission of Religious Identity: The Multiple Roles of the Ethiopian Däbtära', Journal of Religion in Africa, vol. 22.3 (1992), pp. 24260.

7.Patrick Harries, 'The Roots of Ethnicity: Discourse and the Politics of Language Construction in South-East Africa', African Affairs, vol. 87, 346 (January 1988), pp. 2552. See also his parallel study, 'Exclusion, Classification and Internal Colonialism: The Emergence of Ethnicity among the Tsonga-Speakers of South Africa', pp. 82117 of Vail, The Creation of Tribalism; Nicolas Monnier, 'Stratégie missionnaire et tactiques d'appropriation indigènes: La Mission romande au Mozambique 18881896, Le Fait Missionnaire, vol. 2 (December 1995, Lausanne), pp. 185, and G.J. van Butselaar, 'The Ambiguity of (Cross-Cultural) Mission: Swiss Missionaries and Tsonga Christians in the Context of South Africa', Missionalia, vol. 24 (1996, Pretoria), pp. 6377.

Page 225

8.Harries, 'The Roots of Ethnicity', p. 41.

9.Ibid., pp. 512.

10.Ibid., p. 52.

11.Ibid., p. 52.

12.Michael Wright, Buganda in the Heroic Age (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 204.

13.J. Rowe, 'Myth, Memoir and Moral Admonition: Luganda Historical Writing 18931969', Uganda Journal, vol. 33 (1969), pp. 1740.

14.Tudor Griffiths, 'Bishop Tucker of Uganda', unpublished manuscript.

15.P.F. de Moraes Farias and K. Barber (eds.), Self-Assertion and Brokerage: Early Cultural Nationalism in West Africa (Birmingham, 1980); J.D.Y. Peel, 'The Cultural Work of Yoruba Ethnogenesis', in E. Tonkin (ed.), History and Ethnicity (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988), pp. 198215; Toyin Falola (ed.), Pioneer, Patriot and Patriarch: Samuel Johnson and the Yoruba People (Madison, 1993).

16.Richard Sklar, Nigerian Political Parties (Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 233.

17.D. Anthony Low and R. Cranford Pratt, Buganda and British Overrule 19001955 (Oxford University Press, 1960), p. 253.

18.Ibid., p. 349.

7

Ethnicity Further Considered

1.John Lonsdale, 'Moral Ethnicity and Political Tribalism', in Preben Kaarsholm and Jan Hultin (eds.), Inventions and Boundaries: Historical and Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism (Roskilde University Press, Denmark, 1994), p. 131. My understanding of ethnicity is very much that of John Lonsdale and of Richard Jenkins, 'Ethnicity, etcetera; Social Anthropological Points of View', Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 19 (1996), pp. 80722.

2.E.J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 104.

3.See Anne Hilton, The Kingdom of Kongo (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), pp. 367, 467, 21921; Victor Turner, The Ritual Process (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969), pp. 97102; Monica Wilson, Communal Rituals of the Nyakyusa (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), pp. 245.

4.J.E.A. Jolliffe, The Constitutional History of Medieval England (London: Black, 1937), p. 100.

5.Preface to the second edition of the Enciklopedija Jugoslavije, 1983, pp. ixx.

Page 226

6.E.E. Evans-Pritchard, Nuer Religion (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956), pp. 2879; Godfrey Lienhardt, Divinity and Experience: The Religion of the Dinka (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961), p. 219.

7.The underlying reason in his deeply traditional Ganda thinking was probably that a Muganda cannot be circumcised.

8.Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), p. 11.

8

Religion Further Considered

1.For a fascinating discussion of the relationship between Englishness and Jewishness, see James Shapiro, Shakespeare and the Jews (Columbia University Press, 1996).

2.Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (London: Little, Brown and Company, 1994), p. 188.

3.See Rosalind Ransford, 'A Kind of Noah's Ark: Aelred of Rievaulx and National Identity', in Stuart Mews (ed.), Religion and National Identity, Studies in Church History 18 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982), pp. 13746.

4.E.J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 48.

5.Ibid., p. 76.

6.Ibid., p. 74.

7.E. Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England 14001580 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), pp. 77 and 79.

8.Regino of Prüm, Chronicon, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores Rerum Germanicorum (65), p. xx, quoted in Susan Reynolds, Kingdoms and Communities in Western Europe 9001300 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 257.

9.Michael Chemiavsky, Tsar and People: Studies in Russian Myths (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961).

10.Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism, p. 49.

11.Anthony Smith, Nationalism in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1979), especially pp. 7880.

12.Lamin Sanneb, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture (New York: Orbis, 1990).

13.E.J. van Donzel (ed.), Enbaqom, Angasa Amin (La Porte de la Foi): Apologie éthiopienne du christianisme contre L'Islam à partir du Coran (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1969).

14.M. Ghayasuddin (ed.), The Impact of Nationalism on the Muslim World, (London: The Open Press, 1986), pp. 1 and 4.

15.William Temple, Church and Nation (London: Macmillan, 1915), p. 45.

Page 227

16.World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh, 1910, Report of Commission 1, Carrying the Gospel to the Non-Christian World.

17.The Churches Survey their Task, the Report of the Conference at Oxford, July 1937, on Church, Community and State (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1937), especially the 'Longer Report on Church and Community', pp. 188240, significanfiy owed in its final form to Sir Walter Moberly, chairman of that section of the Conference. The most acute Christian analysis of the nation and nationalism dating from the Second World War period is probably Christopher Dawson's The Judgement of the Nations (London: Sheed and Ward, 1943).

18.The case of modem Fiji is also interesting. It is perhaps the most Methodist society in the world, and Methodism has become the core of its nationalism. When more ecumenically minded Methodists came to control the leadership of the church, they were forcibly ousted by nationalists.

19.Beyond Tolerance: The Challenge of Mixed Marriage, A Record of the International Consultation held in Dublin, 1974, ed. Michael Hurley (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1975), Appendix II, pp. 18893.

20.Adrian Hastings, 'Intermarriage and the Wider Society', Beyond Tolerance, pp. 18, reprinted in A. Hastings, The Faces of God (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1975), pp. 11725.

21.Robin Flower, The Irish Tradition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1947), p. 22; cf. Dáibhí Ó Cróinín, Early Medieval Ireland 4001200 (London: Longman, 1995), p. 54.

22.Cymbeline, 5.5.

Page 228

Index

A

Aberdeen 17

Aelfrac 42

Aelred of Rievaulx 44, 189, 191

Africa

character of its ethnicities 14850, 1512, 164, 168, 1701, 1747, 178, 179 the Ethiopian exception 1501

modern impact of the missionary and of vernacular writing for nation-construction 1519 colonialism as constructor of 'nation-states' 1602, 1723

anti-colonial 'nationalism' 1624, 191 the multi-ethnic state 1656, 1801

Agincourt, Battle of 49, 56

Aksum 197

Alban, St 36

Albania and Albanians 128, 143, 173

Alfred, King 39, 43, 153, 165, 1889

Algeria 93

Alsace 135

America 5, 10, 26, 7480, 93, 174, 186

Amhara 1501, 176

Amsterdam 24, 173

Anderson, Benedict 2, 6, 8, 10, 11, 223, 25, 28, 135

Ankole 157

antisemitism 52, 11112 Antwerp 173

Arabs 1712, 2012

Arbroath, Declaration of 71, 118

Armada 56, 83

Armenia 120, 187, 198, 199, 205

Armstrong, John A. 211 n.10, 215 n.15

Arthur, King 44, 62, 193

Arundel, Archbishop 47

Ashanti 160

Austria, see also Habsburg Empire 106, 108, 116, 125, 130, 131, 137, 139

Awolowo, Chief Obafenu 161

Azande 68

B

Bacon, Francis 15, 22

Baganda, see Buganda

Bagehot, Walter 6

Banda, Hastings Kamuzu 223 n.31

Bangor 2089

Banyoro 149

Barbour, John 195

Basoga 149

Basques 160, 178

Bavaria 110, 114, 116, 121

Becket, Thomas 48, 203

Bede, the Venerable 359, 43, 62, 176, 1889

Bedell, William 86, 88

Belfast xi, xii, 208

Belgium 27, 116, 1734

Belgrade 134, 143

Bemba 176

Bentham, Jeremy 6

Bernard, Bishop of St David's 17

Berthoud, Henri 1535

Bible

influence and translation of, in general 34, 12, 18, 1512, 155, 179, 1945 translations of, in

Armenian 198

Catalan 234

Croat 138

Dutch 115

English 1518, 24, 41, 47, 58, 59, 73, 213 n.42

French 101, 103

Ge'ez 1501

German 1078, 112

Irish 86

Latin (the Vulgate) 1618, 38, 107, 115, 213 n.42

Luganda 156

Lunyoro 157

Page 229

Serb 1356

Slavonic, Old 127

Slovene 139

Swahili 165

Welsh 73

Yoruba 1589

Bible Society, policy of 155

Binford, Martha 154

Blake, William 63

Bobbio 208

Bodmin 66

Boethius 39

Bologna 22, 200

Boniface of Savoy 52

Boniface VIII 98

Book of Common Prayer 15, 58, 72, 104

Bosanquet, Bernard 6

Bosnia 113, 124;

pre-modern, 12731;

twentieth-century ethnic and political predicament, 1367, 13942, 174, 183 Bouvines, Battle of 192

Boyle, Richard, Earl of Cork 84

Boyle, Robert 86

Bracton, Henry 118

Brankovic, Vuk 1312, 190

Breuilly, John 2, 8, 10, 11

Britain and Britons 367, 42, 615, 69, 183, 2079;

British Empire 7, 634, 185

Brittany and Bretons 103, 114, 115, 119, 160, 173

Browning, Robert 63

Brubaker, Rogers 13, 25

Brussels 122

Brut, the 193

Buganda 68, 149, 1558, 162, 176

Bulgaria and Bulgars 124, 129, 142

Burgundy 103, 114, 133

Burke, Edmund 6, 14, 789

Burundi 160, 166, 1701

Byrhtnoth, Earl 42

C

Caesar, Julius 36, 110

Cakavian * 128, 135, 137

Cambridge 22, 51

Camden's Britannia 62

Campbell, James 36, 42

Cannadine, David 63

Canterbury 378, 52

Cardigan 69

capitals, their national role 40, 47, 100, 107, 117, 143, 215 n.15 Catalonia 234, 117, 178

Catholic Church and Catholicism 178, 190, 2023, 206, 208

and Africa 1656

and England 513, 57, 60, 65

and the European Union 122

and France 98101, 1034, 188

and Ireland 81, 85, 8991

and Spain 112

and the South Slavs 1378, 146

Cauchon, Bishop 190

Ceolfrid, Bishop 37

Ceolwulf, King 38

Chagga 176

Chamberlayne, Edward 61

Chambers, R.W. 46

Champagne 98, 133

Charlemagne 199

Charles II 62

Chaucer, Geoffrey 47, 49

Cherniavsky, Michael 196

Christianity, see Bible, New Testament, Catholic Church and Catholicism, Orthodox Church, Eastern, Protestantism and Protestants, religion Church of England 53, 55, 589, 183, 205

Churchill, Winston 84

Clement V 98

Clovis, King 1889

Coca-Cola 176

Colley, Linda 36, 56, 615, 73

Cologne 22, 121, 200

Columba, St 208

Comgall, St 2089

Connaught 68, 69

Constantinople 129, 133

Cooper, James Fenimore 77

Copts 1712

Cornwall 445, 667, 114, 115, 183

Cotton, John 74

Coyer, Abbé 101