5. The genre variety of “The Canterbury Tales” by g. Chaucer and the ideas of humanism.

The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the rest in verse). The tales, some of which are originals and others not, are contained inside a frame tale and told by a group of pilgrims on their way from Southwark to Canterbury, England (where a tourist attraction entitled The Canterbury Tales may nowadays be viewed) to visit Saint Thomas à Becket's shrine at the cathedral there (later destroyed by Henry VIII ).

The themes of the tales vary, and include topics such as courtly love, treachery and avarice. The genres also vary, and include romance, Breton lai, sermon, and fabliau. The characters, introduced in the Prologue of the book, tell tales of extreme cultural relevance.

The Tales include:

• The Knight's Tale

• The Miller's Prologue and Tale

• The Reeve's Prologue and Tale

• The Cook's Prologue and Tale

• The Man of Law's Prologue and Tale

• The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale

• The Friar's Prologue and Tale

• The Summoner's Prologue and Tale

• The Clerk's Prologue and Tale

• The Merchant's Prologue and Tale

• The Squire's Prologue and Tale

• The Franklin's Prologue and Tale

• The Physician's Tale

• The Pardoner's Prologue and Tale

• The Shipman's Tale

• The Prioress' Prologue and Tale

• Chaucer's Tale of Sir Topas

• The Tale of Melibee

• The Monk's Tale

• The Nun's Priest's Tale

• The Second Nun's Prologue and Tale

• The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale

• The Manciple's Prologue and Tale

• The Parson's Prologue and Tale

• Chaucer's Retraction

Some of the tales are serious and others are humorous; however, all are very precise in describing the traits and faults of human nature. Religious malpractice is a major theme. Another important element of the tales is their focus on the division of the three estates. The work is incomplete, as it was originally intended that each character would tell four tales, two on the way to Canterbury and two on the return journey.

Perhaps the greatest contribution that this work has made to English literature is in its use of vulgar (i.e. 'of the people') English, instead of using French or Latin, which were usually used for literary works. The structure of Canterbury Tales is also easy to find in other contemporary works, such as Boccaccio's Decameron, which may have been one of Chaucer's main sources of inspiration.

The title of the work has become an everyday phrase in the language and has been variously adapted and adopted, eg. in the title of the British film, A Canterbury Tale. Recently an animated version of some of the tales has been produced for British television. As well as a version with Modern English dialogue, there were versions in Middle English and Welsh.

6. The epoch of Renaissance. The representatives of English Renaissance. Th. More. The general characteristics of W. Shakespeare’s works. W. Shakespeare’s sonnets. The sonnet as a literary form and a genre. (всё в тетради)

7. W. Shakespeare’s tragedies (“Othello”, “Hamlet”, “Romeo and Juliet”). The basic themes and plots; the philosophic message of the tragedies. Characteristics of a Shakespearean Tragedy

Most of the tragedies written by Shakespeare are revenge and ambition tragedies. For instance, Othello, Hamlet, King Lear and Macbeth are the dark tragedies showing revenge and ambition. However, there is an exception to this in the form of a romantic tragedy, rather the only romantic tragedy written by Shakespeare and that is Romeo and Juliet. Unlike the revenge/ambition tragedy, there are two tragic characters in Romeo and Juliet. Romeo becomes impulsive and acts without thinking about the consequences which brings in the separation and ultimately the death of the two lovers. Coming back to the revenge/ambition tragedies, there are some noticeable features which are dealt with in the following part.

Tragic/Fatal Flaw

O farewell, Farewell the neighing steed, and the shrill trump, The spirit-stirring drum, th’ ear-piercing fife; The royal banner, and all quality, Pride, pomp, and circumstance of glorious war! And O you mortal engines, whose rude throats Th’ immortal Jove’s dread clamors counterfeit, Farewell! Othello’s occupation’s gone. – Othello

A ‘tragic flaw’, by definition, is a personality trait that leads to the downfall of the protagonist. It can also be a wrong action performed by the protagonist that results in his own ruin. It is the most important element in the tragedy and almost every hero/heroine of a Shakespearean tragedy possesses a tragic flaw. Examples of tragic flaw in Shakespearean tragedy are: Macbeth’s obsession with power, Othello’s jealousy and Hamlet’s indecisiveness.

Supernatural Elements

By the pricking of my thumbs, Something wicked this way comes. [Knocking] Open locks, Whoever knocks! – Macbeth

Use of super-natural elements is a common characteristic of the Elizabethan drama, to which Shakespeare’s plays are no exception. The supernatural powers contribute to the fate of the protagonist. However, they are not solely responsible for the downfall of the hero, it still lies in the deeds/actions of the hero. Usually, these actions are the outcome of the protagonist’s over-ambitious nature (as in Macbeth where he wants to become the king) or the feeling of revenge. Furthermore, they are not the illusions in the mind of the hero because they contribute to the action of the play with their presence in more than one or two scenes. The effective use of witches in Shakespeare’s plays reflects the old society beliefs in the evil powers who practice evil rites to affect the central character(s). For instance, in Macbeth, when Macbeth encounters the three witches, he starts believing whatever they say without any doubt in mind of their existence. This is what the old society belief in the evil spirits reflected in Shakespeare’s tragedy.

Internal and External Conflict

I’ th’ last night’s storm I such a fellow saw, Which made me think a man a worm. My son Came then into my mind, and yet my mind Was then scarce friends with him. I have heard more since. As flies to wanton boys are we to th’ gods, They kill us for their sport. – King Lear

The external conflict, as we can easily make out, is the conflict between two people, the tragic hero and other main character of the story. It can also be the conflict between two parties one out of which is led by the tragic hero. The result of the external conflict is always in favor of the other party as it is the good side. When talking about the inward struggle of the hero, it is the struggle of the thoughts in his mind. The result of this struggle many a time is insane behavior of the hero (as in King Lear, the king becomes mentally ill). The inward struggle also includes the action of spiritual forces which work against the hero.

Fate/Fortune

How now, my lord, why do you keep alone, Of sorriest fancies your companions making, Using those thoughts which should indeed have died With them they think on? Things without all remedy Should be without regard: what’s done, is done. – Macbeth

As the tragic hero/heroine is of high estate and is a public figure, his/her downfall produces a contrast which affects not only his/her personal life, but the fate and welfare of the entire nation or the empire. It reflects the powerlessness of human beings and the omnipotence of fate that a personal story of a peasant or a worker cannot produce. The adverse effects of fate on the empire are evident in Macbeth, when Duncan’s sons Malcolm and Macduff are planning to defeat Macbeth and at the same time trying to support the collapsing kingdom. Macduff suggests that Malcolm take the throne, but Malcolm is not mature enough to hold the falling empire.

The Theme of Foul and Revenge