8.The system of education in Ukraine
Present - day independent Ukraine has got a rather developed system of education. General secondary education is free and compulsory. The secondary school has three stages: primary, basic and senior. Later there appeared a new type of schools: gymnasiums, lyceums and private schools. The secondary school must secure a uniform level of knowledge, necessary for each student. An important part in the educational system is played by qualifications.
Post - secondary education is provided by technical school colleges and institution of higher learning: universities, academies, institutes, conservatories. At each higher educational establishment there is a post - graduate course with postgraduates, working for their scientific degrees. Almost all higher schools provide part-time, extra-mural and full time education. There are many scientific educational and academic centers in Ukraine famous not only in. our country but also abroad. It becomes a wide-spread practice to invite lecturers from the leading higher educational establishments from abroad to lecture at Ukraine's academies and universities. There have been taken place considerable changes in reforming the system of education as a whole. There are four higher educational levels of consequently four levels of accreditation of higher schools. Higher school of the first two levels of accrediting have the right to train junior specialists. The institutions of the third and fourth levels of accrediting have the right to tram both bachelors and masters of science.
The course of studies to get the degree of the Bachelor lasts for four years. To become a specialist or a Master of science the students have to study one-two years more. The education may be free of change or for fee. In recent years alongside with existing state higher educational establishments there appeared a lot of different private higher schools. All it gives the youth the opportunity to choose the higher educational establishment they prefer and the speciality they would like to gam.
Nowadays Ukraine numbers a total of more than 200 higher educational establishments (161 of them are state owned) with 1.5 million college and University students.
Graduates from the Ukrainian institutions of higher learning may become famous writers, physicists, chemists, doctors, diplomats, lawyers, economists etc.
16.Money Money can be defined by what money does.
"Currency" is money that is actually in use in a particular country, while "money" is coins and printed notes given and accepted when selling and buying.
All values in the economic system are measured in terms of money. Goods and sevices are sold for money, and that money is in return exchanged for other goods and services.
Money can be any substance that functions as a Medium of Exchange, a Measure of Value and a Store of Value.
As a Medium of exchange, money is something generally accepted as payment for goods and services.
As a Measure of Value money expresses worth in terms that most individuals understand.
Money also serves as a Store of Value. This means that goods or services can be converted into money that is easily stored until some future time.
Modem money has several characterictics: portability, durability and divisibility.
Modern money, however, has a certain disadvantage. The value of money or the purchasing power of money is not stable, it can change.
An extended period of rising prisec is called infliation. A period in which prices are falling is called defliation. The value of money decreased during periods of inflation. And increased during periods of defliation.
Money
Money is one of man’s greatest inventions. In the absence of some form money, exchange may take the form of barter which is the direct exchange of goods and services.
As the extent of specialization increases, the barter system proves very inefficient and frustrating.
The great disadvantage of barter is the fact that it depends upon a ‘double coincidence of wants’. A hunter who wants to exchange his skins for corn must find, not merely a person who wants skins, but someone who wants skin and has a surplus of corn for disposal.
In the market-place, it meant that trader had two functions:
first, to weigh the metal to see that it conformed to current standards; then, if it did, to weigh the goods the customer wished to buy. Obviously, the weighing of metal coins was time-consuming,
so the size and weight of the coins of the realm were eventually standardized and stamped.
In the function of money a commodity must be widely acceptable to the population of the region or country. To acquire acceptability a commodity must have the following attributes:
Medium of exchange: To serve as a medium of exchange, people must be willing to give and receive the commodity in exchange for goods and services. Medium of exchange allows people to specialize in particular areas. Individuals can specialize in a job or profession that is the most advantageous to them. They wall receive money for their labour and in exchange will be able to purchase the fruits of other people's labour. With this specialization, the volume of trade increases, the range of services and goods expands and money assumes a greater and greater rule in the economy.
In order to fulfill the functions of money, a commodity must have the following properties.
Portability; Money should be easy to carry and easy to transfer when purchases are made anywhere in the country. If it is not portable, it cannot be widely used. With inflation, the carrying of large numbers of notes can be a nuisance, so that in due course the authorities will withdraw the notes of lower denomination and issue notes of higher denomination.
Durability: Money that does not have it (e.g. cabbage) will very quickly lose its value. Notes of Bank of England have a life expectancy of about six months and are quickly replaced by the authorities.
Divisibility: Money must be capable of being divided into smaller units to allow the purchase of cheaper goods. The value of the sum of each part must equal the whole, for example five 20-pence pieces must equal £1.
Stability: Today this is perhaps one of the most important properties of money. With very high inflation, people would not be keen on either to hold money or to use it. The value of goods could not then be accurately ascertained, and other commodity would be used as a medium of exchange.
Transferability: Closely linked with stability is the ability to transfer money easily and without any legal process. It should therefore be easily exchanged for goods and services.
Reconcilability: All units of money must be equal in size, shape, weight, content and must be easily recognized for their worth. Counterfeit money often comes into circulation which makes recognition difficult.
Money that is not convertible into anything is said to be fiat or inconvertible money. It is legal tender, but it is not convertible into anything else of value that backs it.
Coins refer to all metallic money. Notes refer to paper money. Taken together, notes and coins are commonly referred to as cash or currency. Deposit money or bank money refers to deposits held at banks.
Today, all notes and coins in circulation are fiat money. Modern coins, unlike their predecessors, contain a value of metal that is characteristically only a minute fraction of the face value of the coin. Nevertheless, they function as money.