2.2.3. Types of semantic change without the transfer of name

2.2.3.1. Specialization and generalization of meanings

Results of semantic change can be observed in the changes of the denotational and connotational meanings of the word.

Changes in the denotational meaning may result in the restriction of the types or range of referents denoted by the word. This is termed as restriction or narrowing of meaning. This may be illustrated by the semantic development of the word hound (OE hund) which used to denote ‘a dog of any breed’, but now denotes only ‘a hunting dog’. This is also the case with the word fowl (OE fuol) which used to denote ‘any bird’ but now denotes only ‘a domestic bird’.

If the word with the restricted or narrowed meaning passes from the common vocabulary into specific use, we describe the result of the semantic change as specialization of meaning. For example, we can observe restriction and specialization of meaning in the case of the verb to glide (OE glidan) which had the meaning ‘to move smoothly’ and now has acquired a narrowed and specialized meaning ‘to fly without an engine’. The example of narrowing and specialization of meaning in the general language: OE dēōr ‘any wild beast’, now means ‘a certain kind of wild beast’, ‘олень’ in Russian.

In all the examples considered above a word which formerly represented a notion of a broader scope has come to render a notion of a narrower scope. When the meaning is specialized, the word can name fewer objects, that is fewer referents. That is why the reduction of scope accounts for the term narrowing of meaning.

Changes in the denotational meaning may also result in the application of the word to a wider variety of referents. This is termed as extension, widening or broadening of meaning. It may be illustrated by the word target which originally meant ‘a small round shield’ a diminutive of targe, cf. ON (Old Norse) targa, but now means ‘anything that is fired at’ and also, figuratively, ‘any result aimed at’.

If the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use, we describe the result of the semantic change as generalization of meaning. For example, the word ready (< OE rēāde (a derivative of the verb rīdan ‘to ride’) meant ‘prepared for a ride’. Here the scope of the new notion is wider than that of the original one. In most cases generalization is combined with a higher order of abstraction than in the notion expressed by the earlier meaning. The transition from a concrete meaning to an abstract one is a most frequent feature in the semantic history of words.

2.2.3.2. Amelioration and pejoration of meaning

Changes in the connotational meaning may be subdivided into two main groups: ameliorative and pejorative development of meaning. These changes depend on the social attitude to the object named.

Ameliorative development of meaning or amelioration, or elevation is an improvement of the connotational component of meaning. It is a semantic shift undergone by words due to their referents coming up the social scale. For example, OE cwēn ‘a woman’ > MnE queen; OE cniht ‘a young servant’ > MnE knight. The meanings of these words have been elevated through associations with aristocratic life.

Pejorative development of meaning or pejoration, or degradation, or degeneration is a deterioration of the connotational component of meaning. It is the acquisition by the word of some derogatory emotive charge. It is a semantic shift undergone by words due to their referents coming down or the social scale, or lowering in the social scale connected with the appearance of scornful or disdainful emotive tone. For example, MnE knave < OE cnafa ‘a boy’, cf. Germ Knabe, then acquired the meaning ‘a servant’ and finally became a term of abuse and scorn.