17Th century: The Stuarts and the Puritans (1603-1660)

After the death of Elizabeth I and the next king, her cousin James VI of Scotland, his son Charles I ascended to the throne. Conflicts between the monarchy and Parliament worsened. Civil war broke out in 1642 between the king's followers, who were called Cavaliers, and Parliament's chief supporters, a religious and political group called the Puritans. In 1648, the Puritans won the war, beheaded Charles in 1649, and ruled England until 1660. The political situation influenced English literature of the period.

English prose started to emerge in full richness in the 17th century, with the "Authorized Version of the Bible", also called the "King James Bible" (1611). It is significant because its vocabulary, imagery, and rhythms, elegant yet natural style have influenced English writers ever since. Yet, there are few outstanding prose works written in that period, apart from philosophical essays and tracts written during the early and mid-1600's.

The XVII century poetry developed within two distinct tendencies represented by metaphysical and Cavalier poets. The first is exemplified by the poetry of John Donne, the leader, and his followers, who carried the metaphorical style to new heights. The second group, the Cavalier poets, were associated with the court of Charles I and included Thomas Carew, Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, and Sir John Suckling.

The metaphysical poets used comparatively simple language, but they often created elaborate images called conceits. Donne wrote passionate love poetry until he converted from Roman Catholicism to the Anglican faith and became an Anglican priest in 1615. After his conversion, Donne wrote equally passionate poems to God. In contrast to the serious metaphysical poets, the Cavalier poets wrote dashing love poetry.

The last great poet of the English Renaissance in the mid-1660s was the Puritan writer John Milton. He wrote prose and verse on many subjects, but his greatest achievement is "Paradise Lost" (1667), an epic poem based on the story of Adam and Eve. The work, which became a classic of world literature, is noted for its rich and musical blank verse and vivid descriptions of heaven, hell, and the Garden of Eden.

Jacobean drama emulated Elizabethan drama, especially in such characteristics as violent action, spectacle, and the revenge theme. Satiric comedies were also popular, including the plays "Volpone" (1606) and "The Alchemist" (1610) in which Ben Jonson satirizes universal human failings such as greed, ignorance, or superstition, showing the influence of ancient Roman drama.

After James I died, the quality of English drama rapidly declined. In 1642, the Puritans ordered the closing of the theaters, claiming that plays were wicked. The order remained in effect for 18 years.

17Th century: The Restoration Period

The Restoration period started in 1660, when Charles II was restored to the throne, and continued until about 1700. The Restoration brought a strong reaction against the strict moral code the Puritans had enforced. Restoration writers, especially comic playwrights, reflected the new relaxed morality of the upper class in their works.

The stages of literary taste during this and the next two periods are often referred to as the ages of Dryden, Pope, and Johnson, after the three great figures who carried on the classical tradition in literature.

John Dryden became the outstanding literary figure of the Restoration after Milton's death in 1674. He wrote poetry, popular dramas, and literary criticism. The poetry of John Dryden possesses a grandeur and force that set the tone of the new age. His polished heroic couplet (a unit of two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter, generally end-stopped) became the dominant form in the composition of longer poems. He used the new meter to reflect his political and religious shifts: from a supporter of the Puritan to a supporter of the restored monarchy, from the Anglican faith to Roman Catholicism. Dryden's reputation rests primarily on satire, the form that became the dominant genre of the age, although the bulk of his work was in drama. His best plays include "Marriage a la Mode" (1672), a comedy, and "All for Love" (1677), a tragedy. Dryden's clear prose style in his fine literary criticism also defined the tone of his time. One example is "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy" (1668), which contains a brilliant analysis of Shakespeare's work.

During the Restoration, prose became less elaborate than had been fashionable earlier in the 1600's. Writers tried to express themselves clearly, simply, and directly. Noteworthy prose was produced by Samuel Pepys and John Bunyan. Bunyan, a Puritan preacher, used especially simple, vivid language to write allegorical narratives of the human journey through life, death, and religion, including "The Pilgrim's Progress" (1678, 1684), a popular Christian allegory (story with a literal and a symbolic meaning). Pepys, a high official of the Admiralty Office, kept a secret diary that is valuable as a portrait of contemporary taste, giving a delightful and highly detailed view of English life during the late 1600's, e.g. the Great Fire that destroyed much of London in 1666.

After Charles II became king in 1660, the theaters were reopened and an important period in English drama began. Two types of plays rapidly dominated Restoration stages: (1) the comedy of manners and (2) the heroic tragedy. The heroic tragedy had a complicated plot that dealt with the conflict between love and honor and was set in faraway lands. It never rose to the Shakespearean height; little action took place on the stage, and the characters spoke in elegant, noble-sounding heroic couplets.

The comedy of manners was much more successful than the tragedy. It was witty, sometimes cynical, and occasionally indecent and treated love and romantic intrigue in a light, often broadly humorous way. Its greatest practitioner was William Congreve with his "The Way of the World" (1700).