16. Parts of Speech

Part of speech is the common name for a word class--a category into which words are placed according to the work they do in a sentence.

Nouns and Pronouns

Nouns are words that describe a "thing" and can be generic (common nouns) or specific (proper nouns). They can serve as the subject or object of a verb or as a possessive or the object of a preposition. Examples: cat, Christianity, Jack

Pronouns are nonspecific words that take the place of nouns. They are small, short words that help avoid repetition and cut back on the need for longer nouns. Examples: he, she, it, his, they

Categories of number of a noun: countable, uncountable, are collective

Categories of case of a noun: the general and possessive

Category of definiteness and uncertainty of a noun

Verbs

Verbs are words that describe an action and come in many different tenses and forms. Examples: walks, carried, holding

The categories: tense, aspect, voice and correlations

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives are words that describe nouns. Examples: blue, happy, tall, fast. In English, they usually come before the noun they modify: "the blue car."

Adverbs are like adjectives in that they are used to describe things, but adverbs describe verbs and adjectives instead of nouns. Examples: quickly, deeply, loudly

Prepositions

Prepositions are words used to describe the relationship between words in a sentence and are the beginning to a prepositional phrase. Examples: about, above, beneath, between, toward

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words used to bring two or more different clauses, phrases, or items together in a sentence. Examples: and, or, but

Interjections

Interjections are words used to show a quick and immediate emotion. They often stand by themselves and are followed by an exclamation mark. Examples: hey!, whoa!

Article - is a determining unit of a specific nature accompanying the noun in communicative collocation.

Kinds of articles : material articles: the and a(n) and “zero” article.

The notional parts of speech are: the noun, the adjective, the stative, the pronoun, the numeral, the verb, the adverb, the modal words, the interjection.

The functional parts of speech are: the preposition, the conjunction, the particle.

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17.Various ways of word-building in me

Word-building is the process of creating of new Ws from the material of the lang-ge after certain structural & semantic formulas & patterns. Productive ways of W-B are: affixation(paint-painter),word-compouding (ice-cream,weekend);conversion(a monkey-to monkey);shortening(TV).

Affixation is the formation of new W-s by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems.

Prefixation is the formation of Ws with the help of prefixes. According to the general meaning which they give to the Ws prefixes are classified into:

1)negative Pr-s (unusual, nonstop; nonperfect; independent;disagree, amoral,aback);

2)Pr-s of repetition(reread);

3)reversative Pr-s(unbuttened;to form-to deform;to cover-to discover,disconnect);

4)Pr-s of time & order(pre-war;post-war;ex-wife,ex-president);

5)perjorative Pr-s(psudernym);6)locative Pr-s (supermarket; subway; international; transatlantic; overcome).

Suffixation is the formation of the Ws with the help of suffixes to the root morpheme.The most common class-tion is according to the party-of-speech they serve to form:

1)noun-forming suffixes(Ss): doer; sobriety; kingdom; darkness; administration; specialist; communism; development; marriage; variant; askee; actress;

2)adjective-forming Ss:laughable;aimless;thankfull;dramatic,economic;serious;evident;stylish;-ative;

3)adverb-forming Ss:loudly,lonely;forward;4)verb-forming Ss:darken;realize;graduate;classify. According to the general meaning,they give to the W,Ss may be subdivided into the following groups:

1.noun Ss:

1)Ss denoting agent,profession,occupation:-er,-eer(engineer),-ant,-ist;

2)Ss denoting abstract ideas:-ness,-ship,-ment,-ism,-tion,-ty,-hood,-dom,-th;

3)Ss denoting collectivity:-dom,-ship;

4)feminine Ss:-ine,-ess;

5)diminutive Ss:y/ie/ey;

2.adjective Ss:

1)presence of quality:-ous,-full,-able;

2)absence of quality:-less.

Conversion(Conv)is a type of W-B in which from some W already existing in the lang-ge a new W is made.The new W coincides with the old one in its phonetic shape but belongs to a diff-nt word class.There are 2 main cases of Conv:

1)formation of verbs from nouns & rarely from other parts of speech.Пр:N:doctor-to doctor;Adj:thin-to thin;Prep:down-to down.

2)formation of Ns from Vs & rarely from other parts of speech.Пр:V:to cut-cut;Adj:ups-and-downs.

Word-compounding. Compounds(Cs) are made up by joining together at least 2stems,mostly stems of notional parts of speech which occur in the lang-ge as 3 forms.Cs are structurally & phonetically inseparable.Structurally Cs are characterized by the specific order & arrangement of stems.The order is strictly fixed & the 2^nd stem is the structural & semantic centre of the C.Semanticaly Cs are motivated units:their meaning is derived from the combined lexical meanings of its components {Пр:a toothbrush}and the structural meaning of its distributional pattern{Пр:a boat-life->a life-boat}.{The semantic centre of the C is the lexical meaning of the 2^nd component.Пр:an ear-ring} Cs may be of 3 degrees of motivation:

1)completely motivated:both components are used in their direct meaning{sportsman};

2)partially motivated:one component-in the direct meaning,the other-in indirect meaning{a flower-bed,a chatter-box};

3)completely no motivated:there’s no connection b/n the meaning of the C & the lexical meaning of its components{eye-wash-обмануть}.

According to the degree of a semantic independence of stems:

1)subbordinated:the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance:the head member is the 2^nd component{baby-sitter};

2)coordinated:both stems are semantically equal in important:both Ws are structural & semantic centres{fifty-fifty,zig-zag}.

According to the structure Cs may be classified into:

1)natural:formed by simple placing of 1 stem after another without any linking element{headache};

2)morphological:with a linking element: [ou],[i]{handicraft}, [s/z]{statesman,salesman};

3)sintectical:are formed from segments of speech preserving in their structure traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech:articles,prep,adverbs{mother-in-law}.

Neutral Cs (according to the types of stems joined together):

1)simpleCs:consist of simple affixes stems{wall-lamp,bedroom};

2)derivational Cs:one of the stems is derived:either prefix or suffix{fivingroom,type-writer};

3)contracted Cs:one of the stems is concrected or shortened{TV-set,FBR agent}.

Patterns of Cs:

1)C nouns:1.N+N:pencil-box; 2.N+(V+er):peace-fighter;3.N+(V+Convertion:handshake);

2)C adjectives:1.N+Adj:snowwhite;2.N+V-IIIф:home-made;3.Num+N:five-year.

Shortening(Sh) is the way of formation of new Ws by means of substituting(замещения)a part of the W for a whole.2types of Sh:

1)graphical Sh is used in written speech.Пр:in letters{St-street,Rd-road,Mr,Mrs},in dictionary{N,V,etc,e.g,cp-compair},in articles.Graphical abbriviations are formed in 2 diff-nt ways:

1)initial Sh:p.m,a.m.;

2)syllable Sh:Govt-Government.

2)lexical Sh is used in oral speech.Пр:M.P.–a member of parlament,VIP-a very important person.