9 The sentence(s) The sentence.
When we speak or write we convey our thoughts through sentences. The sentence is the only unit of language which is capable of expressing communication. But the linguists are at difficulty to define it. One of the definitions is:
the sentence is the smallest communication unit expressing a more or less complete thought, having a definite grammatical structure and intonation
Classification of sentences.
Sentences are classified
According to the types of communication
Declarative – give information
Interrogative – we ask for information
Imperative – asking for action
According to the structure
Simple sentences containing one predication
Composite sentences containing more than one predication.
Compound
complex
simple sentences and main clauses may be one member or two-member sentences.
The two-member sentence pattern is typical of the vast majority of sentences in English.
Types of one-member sentences:
Nominative sentences (Another day of fog)
Verbal sentences
Imperative
Infinitive (Only to think of it)
Gerundial (No playing with fire)
Adjectival (splendid!)
Types of sentences according to their completeness:
Complete and incomplete
Incomplete:
Elliptical are such sentences in which one or several parts are missing, they may freely be changed into complete sentences.
Parts of the sentence
Main parts secondary parts
Subject object
Predicate attribute
Adverbial modifier
10. Categorical structure of the word
The most general notions reflecting the most general properties of phenomena are called categories.
As for the grammatical category itself, it presents a unity of form (that is material factor), and meaning (ideal factor). In other terms it presents a unity of content and expression. The plane of content (ex. plurality) comprises the purely semantic elements contained in the language while the plane of expression (ex. boys) comprises the material (formal) units of the language. The two planes are inseparably connected, so that no meaning can be realized without some material means of expression.
The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a category is a paradigm. Paradigms may be small and large, depending on the number of grammatical categories they express; (ex: the paradigm of the word ‘man’ consists of 4 forms: a man – men (number), man’s – men’s (case)).
Parts of speech represent larger paradigms possessing particular paradigms of case, number (noun), degrees of comparison (adjective, adverb), tense, voice, mood, person (verb), etc. Bigger paradigms after parts of speech are morphology and syntax. The biggest paradigm of a language is its grammatical structure.
The paradigms in a category are arranged in the form of grammatical oppositions. The elements of the opposition have two types of features: common features and differential features. In the opposition ‘boy-boys’ the common features is number, the differential features are singularity (boy)/plurality (boys).
The opposition along the line of one grammatical category is called an opposeme, ex. number opposeme: a table – tables.
The oppositional theory was originally formulated as a phonological theory. The qualitative oppositions are privative (b-d-g, p-t-k); gradual (постепен) - (i:-i-e-a) and equipollent (равноцен) – (m-b). By the number of members were divided into binary, ternary (тройной), quaternary (четвертной), etc. The most important type of opposition is the binary privative opposition. It is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature while the other member is characterized by the absence of this feature. The member in which the feature is present is called the ‘marked’ or ‘strong’, or ‘positive’ member, and has the symbol ‘+’ (plus); the member in which the feature is absent - the ‘unmarked’ or ‘weak’, or ‘negative’ member, (minus).
The gradual opposition is formed by a contrastive group of members and shows the degree of feature.
The equipollent opposition is formed by members which have different positive features.
The most important type of opposition in morphology, the same as in phonology, is the binary privative opposition. Ex. in the opposition ‘work-worked’ the marked member is ‘worked’ because it has the differential feature, the morpheme –ed, while the unmarked member ‘work’ has no differential feature.
Equipollent oppositions in English morphology are rare (редкий). Ex. the correlation of the person forms of the verb 'be' - am - is - are. An example of the gradual morphological opposition can be seen in the category of comparison: strong - stronger – the strongest. Both equipollent and gradual oppositions can be reduced to privative oppositions.
In various contextual conditions, one member of an opposition can be used in the position of the other, counter-member. This phenomenon is called oppositional reduction. Ex. the opposition present – future: start – shall start, has been reduced in the sentence (ex. Tonight we start for London) as the weak member ‘start’ replacing the strong member ‘shall start’.
This kind of oppositional reduction is called neutralization of opposition. There is another kind of reduction, by which one of the members of the opposition is placed in conditions uncommon for it. This use is stylistically marked. (Ex. This man is constantly complaining of something.) This contradiction intensifies the implied disapproval of the man's behavior.