Vocabulary:

approach	підхід
issue	предмет обговорення, результат
division	розподіл, поділ праці
web	сітка; мережа
establishment	установлення, заснування, створення
to be of the utmost importance	дуже важливо, щоб; надзвичайно
exponent	представник, виразник ідей
to develop	розробляти
to grapple with	намагатися розв’язати проблему
decisive factor	вирішальний фактор
impetus	поштовх; імпульс
consideration	розгляд, обговорення
to take up	підняти
human needs	людські потреби
self-fulfilment	самореалізація
to challenge	піддавати сумніву
to coin	утворювати нові слова, вирази
self-contained	замкнений, ізольований
strict monastic community	суворе чернецьке товариство
internal	внутрішній
external	зовнішній
notable	видатна людина, видатний діяч

Practical Tasks:

Exercise 1. Name the main classical theories and notable exponents of each of the theory.

Exercise 2. Find out the words according to their definitions:

1. the act or art of conducting or supervising of smth, e.g. business;

2. to define;

3. a set of tasks or responsibilities grouped together under a particular title;

4. a driving force;

5. the act or process of motivating;

6. smth which produces or capable to produce a result;

7. the circumstances, objects or conditions by which one is surrounded;

8. to invent a new word or expression.

Exercise 3. Answer the questions:

1. What are the main classical theories?

2. What’s the essence of “bureaucracy”?

3. Who is its author?

4. What is the fundamental idea of the theory of Human Relations?

5. Who is its author?

6. When did the Systems Approach appear?

7. Who developed the theory of Systems Approach?

8. What are the main issues of the Systems Approach?

9. Who are the notable exponents of the Systems Approach?

Exercise 4. Discussion:

1. What are weak and strong points of each of classical theory?

2. Why are all of them groundless to explain modern organizations?

3. Is the Systems Approach a universal panacea?

Text 3. The Meaning of Management.

There is no generally accepted definition of 'management' as an activity, although the classic definition is still held to be that of Henri Fayol. His general statement about management in many ways still remains valid after eighty years, and has only been adapted by more recent writers, as shown below:

'To manage is to forecast and plan, to organise, to command, to coordinate and to control.'

H.FAYOL (1916)

'Management is a social process... the process consists of... planning, control, coordination and motivation.'

E.F.L.BRECH (1957)

'Managing is an operational process initially best dissected by analysing the managerial functions...The five essential managerial functions are: planning, organising, staffing, directing and leading, and controlling.'

KOONTZ and O'DONNELL (1984)

The definitions proposed by Brech and Koontz and O'Donnell represent changes of emphasis rather than principle. For example, Fayol's use of the term 'command' is dropped in favour of 'motivation' (Brech), or 'directing and leading' (Koontz & O'Donnell).

Nevertheless, even his enthusiastic prescriptions for dealing with chaos are tempered by references to 'participation' (ie motivating), 'leadership' and 'control'.

It has to be recognised that the above definitions are extremely broad. Basically, what they are saying is that 'management' is a process which enables organisations to set and achieve their objectives by planning, organising and controlling their resources, including gaining the commitment of their employees (motivation). Over the past twenty years, several writers (e.g. Stewart, Mintzberg) have attempted to move away from this generalised approach towards a more detailed and behaviour-oriented analysis of what managers actually do.

Mintzberg (1973), for example, in reporting his major study of managerial work, highlights a number of key roles that seem to appear regularly in such work. He describes these roles as 'organised sets of behaviours identified with a position', and gathers them into three main groupings, as follows:

Interpersonal roles	Informational roles	Decisional roles
Figurehead	Monitor	Entrepreneur
Leader	Disseminator	Disturbance handler
Liaison	Spokesman	Resource allocator
		Negotiator

Recognisable though these ten role models may be, they are still defined very generally, and there is the additional problem that some of them apply equally to non-managerial jobs (eg monitor, negotiator).

Administration. At this point it will be helpful to distinguish the concept of 'management' from that of 'administration'. At one time these concepts were more or less inter-changeable. Fayol himself, in his original treatise on the subject, used the French word 'administration' to mean what we now would understand as 'management' and so did Lyndall F. Urwick (see next text). For the last forty years or so, however, the term 'management' has been understood as encompassing much more than 'administration', which has tended to be understood as the narrower process of developing and maintaining procedures, eg as in office administration. That is to say 'administration' is seen primarily as an aspect of organising. 'Management', by comparison, is concerned also with planning, controlling and motivating staff.

Organisations. Whatever view is preferred concerning the definition of management, it is clear that it can only be discussed realistically within the context of an organisation. Brech (1965) once described organisation as 'the framework of the management process'. It must be recognised, however, that this 'framework' can be described in several different ways. The first distinction is between the use of the word 'organisation' to describe the process of organising, and its use to describe the social entity formed by a group of people.

As yet there is no widely accepted definition of an organisation. Nevertheless, as the following quotations suggest, there are some commonly accepted features of organisations such as purpose, people and structure.

'Organisations are intricate human strategies designed to achieve certain objectives.'

ARGYRIS (I960)

'Since organisations are systems of behaviour designed to enable humans and their machines to accomplish goals, organisational form must be a joint function of human characteristics and the nature of the task environment.'

SIMON (1976)

'Organisations are systems of inter-dependent human beings.'

PUGH (1990)

'Organisations are set up to achieve purposes that individuals cannot achieve on their own. Organisations then provide a means of working with others to achieve goals ... likely to be determined by whoever is in the best position to influence them ... . A key characteristic of organisations is their complexity.'

STEWART (1994)

As in discussions about management theory, approaches to organisation theory tend to follow the pattern of classical, human relations and systems perspectives. The classical approach concentrates attention on the organisation structure and all that is required to sustain it (organisation charts, procedures, communication channels etc).

Brech and Urwick are good examples of writers who see organisations in this way. The human relations approach, by comparison, says, in effect, that people are the organisation. Therefore it is vital to give first consideration to issues of group and individual needs before such other issues as structure, authority levels and decision-making, for example. Job enrichment is a typical example of a human relations approach to organisational design.

The systems approach aims to describe organisations in terms of open systems, responding to external and internal influences in developing, and ultimately achieving, their objectives. Key areas of attention for systems theorists include the relationship between formal and informal (or unofficial) organisations, the external environment, and the question of boundaries, the organisation's culture and the impact of technology.

Relationship between Management and Organisation Theory. Over the past thirty years the impact of the behavioural sciences on the study of people at work has led to the ascendancy of organisation theory over purely management theory. Management is no longer seen as the controlling factor in work organisations. Instead it is seen as a function of organisations. Its task is to enable the organisation's purposes to be defined and fulfilled by adapting to change and maintaining a workable balance between the various, and frequently conflicting, pressures at work in the organisation.

Handy (1993), sums up the new relationship very neatly. In a discussion on the role of the manager, he suggests that the key variables a manager has to grapple with are:

• people;

• work and structures;

• systems and procedures.

These variables cannot be dealt with in isolation but within the constraints of an environment in which Handy sees three crucial components:

• the goals of the organisation;

• the technology available;

• the culture of the organisation (its values, beliefs etc).

All six factors mentioned interact with each other, and change in one of them will inevitably lead to change in one or more others. To manage successfully is to balance these factors in a way that meets the needs of the organisation at a particular period in time, which is essentially a contingency approach to management.