18.5. Conclusions
We have come to the conclusion that the greatest challenge to the teacher’s professional ability is dealing with weak, large and mixed-ability classes. We have roughly subdivided all learners into the categories of very able, able, less able and unable students and considered the differences in their attitude and capacity to various speech skills. We have decided that to cope with the class of entirely weak learners it is necessary to limit aims and objectives of teaching to perception and guided production, to simplify the material of teaching and to tighten systematic control of learner achievements.
With large classes, the shape and size of the teaching room should provide for extensive group work not to deny an individual learner sufficient time for speech practice. We have discovered the importance of effective organisation of English walls and corners, as well as of the blackboard work.
As far as mixed-abilities classes are concerned, we have examined the ways of setting up groups, presenting new material and providing appropriate activities to coincide with levels of ability.
We have discussed the problem of discipline and said that it involves a code of conduct designed so that learning can be efficient and effective. We have shown some reasons for indiscipline and we have also suggested some action that can be taken when the code of conduct is not adhered to.
Discussion
Select a suitable text from a textbook and produce a table for completion by your weak class. How could it be used for guided written production?
Select a text from a textbook and write out a series of strictly graded questions on 3 sentences from the text.
Indicate on a diagram how you would use a room space for a class of 50 during a single period.
Outline a lesson plan making use of a large class division and allow the usual oral and writing activities.
What criteria would you use for setting up the mixed ability groups?
Specify 3 follow-up activities and indicate how you would present them at two or three levels.
Make a comprehensive list of all uses of the blackboard. What is better to be written and what is better to be drawn?
Give your own examples of using stick figures and other simple drawings.
Can you think of any other reasons why discipline problems might occur other then those quoted in 18.4.1.?
Do you agree with the various courses of action in 18.4.2.? What other action would you be prepared to take in cases of indiscipline?
What items would you include in a ‘code of conduct’ for a class of thirteen-year-olds? Make a list and then decide how you would present the code to the class.
Glossary
Approach An approach to language teaching involves commitment to a particular theory about language or learning.
Appropriacy Choosing the most suitable of a number of nearly synonymous expressions for the occasion in question. The appropriate choice depends on factors such as the relationship between speakers, the topic under discussion and other circumstances of the interaction.
Aspiration In English, initial voiceless plosives ([p, t, k]) are aspirated. Aspiration as much as voicing distinguishes these sounds [b, d, g].
Audio-lingual approach Based directly on behaviourist learning theory, this approach assumes that language learning can be broken down into a series of individual habits, which can be formed (habit formation) by reinforcement of correct response. In practice, this approach gives rise to methods consisting largely of repetition and pattern drilling. The approach also plays its emphasis on the ordering of the skills – listening, speaking, reading, and writing – and the need for maximum error prevention.
Authentic material Samples of language that are real, not produced specially for language teaching. These could be written or recorded on tape.
Backchaining Teaching pronunciation of a pattern by getting students to repeat successively longer portions of it, starting with the last part and extending backwards to the beginning. This technique eliminates the distortion caused by attempting to chain it forwards.
Behaviourism Unlike mentalists, behaviourists restrict themselves to studying only the externals of speech behaviour. Their analysis of language use is therefore entirely in terms of stimulus and response. (See Behaviourist learning theory) For behaviourists, ability to perform in the language is represented as the possession of a set of habits that enable a speaker to respond correctly to any given stimulus.
Behaviourist learning theory The theory that human and animal learning is a process of habit formation. A highly complex learning task can, according to this theory, be learned by being broken down into small habits. These are formed when correct and incorrect responses are rewarded or punishment, respectively. Language is regarded by the behaviourists as a complex network of habits.
Chain and choice Two axes of language most easily pictured as:
Choice
Chain
although this picture is sometimes misleading.
The horizontal axis represents the syntactic linking of words and phrases, and parts of words which are grammatically important (such as the plural –s), as they are strung together. Errors in the chain of language are those such as word order, lack of agreement, incompatible tense-adverbial and tense-tense combinations. Errors in the choice axis are incorrect choices of word or phrase in a given ‘slot’ in the sentence.
Close test A test where every nth (5th, 6th, or 7th, etc.) word is removed from a passage. The student has to fill in the resulting blanks.
Cohesion The linking of sentences into logical sequence, especially in a written text, often added by the use of linking and sequence expressions, such as therefore, next, finally, on the other hand, etc.
Collocate To be found together with. Especially used for lexical items. One lexical item can be said to collocate or not with another.
Communicative approach The communicative approach to language teaching takes as its starting point the use or communicative purpose of language. This approach therefore strongly advocates careful attention to use rather than merely form/ meaning. It would also favour functional-notional organisation of teaching materials. It might tend to support a ‘deep-end’ approach to presentation of new language, in which students are first to cope with the communication task as best as possible before being given the new, necessary forms.
Competence Knowledge of the grammatical and other rules of a language which enable a speaker to use and understand it. By definition a native speaker has perfect competence. (See performance)
Correction test A test which asks the student to correct errors.
Cue The device used by the teacher (or another student) to elicit a response from a student while drilling. Cues may be verbal, visual, numerical, mimed or sound effects.
Dialogue frame A skeleton dialogue with slots in it where new words of phrases may be inserted. In its most controlled from, the dialogue frame is an extended four- or six-line substitution drill. It its freest form, it is highly opened-ended and may result in a fairly genuine S – S conversation.
Direct method A method consisting of bombarding the student with samples of the target language, spoken by a native speaker, and encouraging him to initiate, respond and gradually participate as a speaker. It made the assumption that older students should learn in the same way as a child learns his mother tongue.
Discrete See specific.
Distracters The incorrect choices in a multiple choice test item.
Error As opposed to mistake, imperfect production caused by genuine lack of knowledge about the language (competence).
Error prevention The principle that students learn better by having correct responses rewarded, than by having incorrect responses punished. According to this principle, strong measures should be taken to ensure that each step is well within reach of the student, so that he has a very high chance of making a correct response.
Extensive reading/listening Reading/ listening in quantity for information or enjoyment, without bothering to focus on every unknown item which occurs.
Flashcards Small pieces of card with pictures or words on them, used as teaching aids.
Form The actual words (written) or sounds (spoken) used to express something in language, as opposed to meaning or use. Form is often synonymous with structure.
Four-phase drill A language laboratory drill consisting of the following four phases: 1) taped stimulus; 2) student’s response; 3) taped correct response (=reinforcement); 4) student’s repetition of correct taped response.
Free practice In completely free practice the teacher does not speak, interfere or attempt to control student production at all. Practice varies in the extent to which it is free. Free practice is sometimes called ‘production’.
Function The function of a structure is the communicative purpose of that structure on a particular occasion – what the speaker is trying to do through language. E.g., ‘Have you read this book?’ may be present perfect interrogative in form but the speaker may be using it to make a suggestion, to suggest that the listener read the book. Suggesting is the function of the structure here. The use of a form can always be expressed in terms of functions.
Global questions Comprehension questions requiring general understanding of the passage as a whole.
Global test As opposed to specific or discrete tests, this is a test of the student’s all-round knowledge of the language, and his language skills.
Graded questions Questions on a comprehension passage, ranging from easy to difficult, in that order.
Grading Putting language items in course materials into the best arrangement to maximise learning.
Grammar-translation method The traditional didactic method of language teaching, based on classical studies of dead languages, which consisted of giving rules, paradigms, and vocabulary and getting the students to apply this new knowledge to translation (to and from L1) and to grammatical analysis.
Group-work Independent work carried out simultaneously by groups of 3 or more students on a task or tasks.
Habit formation The process of building up a habit by reinforcing behaviour when it occurs.
Information gap The principle that two (or more) students engaged in a practice activity do not share exactly the same information. If the task is correctly set, the students must pool their information and are thus forced to communicate through English. The information gap is therefore an important element in many communicative practice tasks.
Intensive reading/listening Reading/ listening to a passage in depth for complete comprehension and/ or analysis.
Intonation The rise and fall in pitch which accompanies an utterance. The phenomenon is related to sentence stress. Different intonation and sentence stress patterns can entirely change the meaning of an utterance.
Intrusion test A test in which the student has to strike out words which should not be included in a passage.
Item A language item is a teaching point. A distinction is made between structural, lexical and phonological items.
Key The correct choice in a multiple choice test item.
Key questions The questions that the teacher uses to draw attention to the meaning or the use of the structure, to check whether the students have understood the meaning and/or the use.
L1 First language; mother tongue.
L1 interference The effect of L1 on the student’s production of the L2, causing errors through analogy with L1.
L2 Target language – the foreign language (often but not always the second language) being learnt.
Lexical item A piece of vocabulary to be taught. Not only the meanings of new words, but also phrases, idioms, etc. Lexis = vocabulary.
Meaning The conventional or literal meaning of a particular form: e.g., that passed tense form means past time. The purpose of traditional grammar books is to explain form and meaning. (Compare use)
Meaningful drill A drill which cannot be performed correctly without an understanding of the meaning of what is said.
Mechanical drill A drill which requires students to produce correct examples of the language without needing to think about the meaning of the sentences (etc.) they produce, e.g. simple repetition or meaningless substitution.
Mentalism The mentalist view of language learning and use accepts the fact that the speakers make conscious choices when they speak. Their use of language reflects their thoughts, which may be entirely original or unpredictable. Language use is therefore potentially creative. For mentalists ability to perform in the language results from knowledge of facts about (the rules of) the language. (See competence)
Method A language teaching method is a set of techniques or procedures. These usually follow a systematic scheme. Unlike an approach, a method need not be tied to any particular theory about language or learning, but simply be claimed as successful in practice.
Mistake As opposed to error, a slip of the tongue etc. which the student can self-correct when challenged, because it is not caused by lack of knowledge (competence). A mistake is sometimes referred to as a ‘performance error’.
Mixed ability classes Classes containing a mixture of good, average and bad students, either in terms of their initial level in the language or in terms of their ability to learn a foreign language or study at all.
Model sentence See pattern.
Multiple choice test A test in which students have to answer by choosing one of a number of alternative answers (see stem, options, key, distracters).
Notions Concept such as time, space, quantity, motion and all ideas related to these. E.g. For time, we have a point of time, duration, frequency, time relations, etc.
OHP Overhead projector – a device for projecting writing or pictures horizontally placed on transparent acetate sheets on to an overhead wall screen.
Objective tests Tests, such as multiple choice tests, which have the advantage that the marking does not depend on the subjective judgement of the maker, as a test item can be clearly marked ‘right’ or ‘wring’.
Open-ended test item A test item, such as sentence-completion, which does not force any particular choice on students, as a multiple choice item does, but leaves it open to their imagination.
Options The alternatives possibilities to choose from in a multiple choice test item.
Overgeneralisation The tendency to apply the rule which has been learned beyond the extent to which it applies. E.g., if a student learns that the past tense in English is formed by adding –ed, he may overgeneralise, producing errors such as *goed, *must worked.
Pair-work Independent work by pairs of students working simultaneously on a task or practice activity. Often an extension of ordinary controlled practice or drilling, with more opportunity for students to talk, hence higher STT.
Paradigm A list of related grammatical forms to be learned by heart, e.g. take - took – taken.
Pattern A model sentence, etc., which exemplifies a structural item. Pattern practice or pattern drilling is controlled practice in producing sentences that are modified versions (analogues) of a given pattern.
Performance What a speaker actually does when performing in a language, as opposed to what he knows of the language (competence). Native speakers make lots of mistakes, even though their competence is perfect. Performance is therefore an imperfect realisation of competence.
Phonological item A teaching point concerned with the pronunciation of the language. This could be a contrast between two sounds, intonation, patterns or phenomena such as word or sentence stress.
Presentation The process of introducing a new language item for the first time (including its meaning).
Pre-teaching Isolating a language item about to come up in a text and teaching this first.
Realia Objects and phenomena characteristic of a certain language community.
Redundancy Languages are said to be redundant in that not every grammatical, lexical or phonological feature is essential for the meaning to be conveyed clearly. Semantic aspects such as past time are invariably represented by more than one feature (e.g. an adverbial, last week, and a past tense, went). It is seldom therefore that a single linguistic item is crucial from a point of view of meaning. This has important implications for the teaching of comprehension skills, both listening and reading.
Reinforcement Positive reinforcement is reward; negative reinforcement, punishment. When responses to stimuli are consistently reinforced, a habit is formed (habit formation).
Response The behaviour observed to result in the presence of a stimulus.
STT Student Talking Time, the amount of time in a class spent by the students talking.
Selection Choosing what items or aspects of language are to be included in language course materials.
Situation The (often non-linguistic) context in which language items occur. Usually a situation is established to make the meaning (or usage) of an item clear. Note that it is possible to establish a non-linguistic situation through words (e.g. by describing it verbally).
Sound linking The phenomenon which occurs at the boundary between words, where sounds from one word meet sounds from the next, resulting in changes of sound quality, omission and addition of sounds.
Specific A specific test item focuses only on one teaching point at a time (= discrete).
Stem The basic of the sentence containing the multiple choice which students have to choose between.
Stimulus The cue or signal which releases a bit of behaviour or a habit. A stimulus may be verbal, visual or presented through any of other senses.
Stress Greater muscular effort expended on the articulation of parts of a word or sentence, giving an auditory impression of emphasis.
Structural item A grammatical teaching point. These are most often introduced in the form of patterns.
Structural-situational method A method consisting of drilling patterns within situations that ensure that drills are always meaningful.
Substitution drill The type of pattern practice where students are required to produce new sentences (etc.) by substituting new elements for parts of the pattern and modifying the sentence as necessary. Usually one element (one variable) is required to be changed at a time.
TTT Teacher Talking Time, the amount of time in a class spent by the teacher talking.
Task-oriented work Activities where students are set a clear task to complete, as opposed to a practice activity, where students go on practising until told to stop.
Team teaching Two or more teachers working together as a team to teach a class or classes.
Test item One single ‘question’ in a test (which may not of course be a question).
Transfer Positive transfer is the beneficial effect of having similarities between L1 and L2. Negative transfer (L1 interference) is the bad effect of mother tongue on a student’s production, causing errors.
Usage Refers to examples of language that are correct grammatically and have meaning, but which have no communicative value. In other words, there is no reason why these examples should not be produced, except as examples of form and meaning.
Use The way in which a speaker uses a particular language form to communicate on a particular occasion. The use of a form may be described in terms of its function or communicative purpose.
Voicing Voiced sounds are accompanied by vibration of the vocal cords in the larynx, as produced in all vowel sounds or when singing. Examples of voiced consonants are [b, z, g]. The vocal cords do not resonate during the production of voiceless sounds. Corresponding voiceless consonants [p, s, k].
Weak forms The phenomenon of changed vowel values in parts of certain common words when they are not stressed. E.g. [wz] for [wכz], was.
Work card or worksheet A card or sheet of paper containing a task or tasks for a group, pair or individual to complete. May be prepared by the teacher or sometimes available commercially.
action in case of indiscipline 84
actual occupation 31
anti-social behaviour 85
attitude goals 16
Austen 58
backchaining technique 56
balloon substitution table 72
Bates 68
blackboard 66
blackboard drawing 69
blackboard work 67
categorising activity 37
chorus work 63
class sections 63
code of conduct 80
concentration span 40
content goals 16
cut-outs 66
developmental errors 20
Dewey 6
discipline problems 81
disruptive behaviour 80
drama 79
English corner 65
English walls 66
faces 70
flexible grouping arrangements 72
full production 57
Gefen 52, 59, 72, 73
global intrusion test 2
group work 63
H-model 69
increasing student participation 67
indirect learning 10
indiscipline 85
interlanguage 20
Kilpatrick 6
Koullis 57
large classes 51, 60
layout 67
Lee 57
less-able learners 52
Macmillan 75
mainstream classes 6
Martin 75
mental engagement 31
mimicry memorisation drills 59
mixed interference 20
mixed-ability classes 72
mixed-ability groups 64
multi-level, classes 52
non-streaming 73
onomatopoeic sounds 66
overgeneralisation 20
partial production 57
peer correction 22
Pestalozzi 6
picture compositions on the blackboard 71
primary school curriculum 6
projects 63
prompt-card 37
public pair-work 62
punishment 84
rewards 23
section activity 63
settling activity 46
simple pictures 70
simultaneous pair-work 62
stick figures 70
stirring activities 34
streaming 73
teaching room 62
team teaching 65
transmission type of teaching 61
types of learner 52
unable students 52
wall-charts 66
weak learners 51
work cards 77
action in case of indiscipline 84
actual occupation 31
anti-social behaviour 85
attitude goals 16
Austen 58
backchaining technique 56
balloon substitution table 72
Bates 68
blackboard 66
blackboard drawing 69
blackboard work 67
categorising activity 37
chorus work 63
class sections 63
code of conduct 80
concentration span 40
content goals 16
cut-outs 66
developmental errors 20
Dewey 6
discipline problems 81
disruptive behaviour 80
drama 79
English corner 65
English walls 66
faces 70
flexible grouping arrangements 72
full production 57
Gefen 52, 59, 72, 73
global intrusion test 2
group work 63
H-model 69
increasing student participation 67
indirect learning 10
indiscipline 85
interlanguage 20
Kilpatrick 6
Koullis 57
large classes 51, 60
layout 67
Lee 57
less-able learners 52
Macmillan 75
mainstream classes 6
Martin 75
mental engagement 31
mimicry memorisation drills 59
mixed interference 20
mixed-ability classes 72
mixed-ability groups 64
multi-level, classes 52
non-streaming 73
onomatopoeic sounds 66
overgeneralisation 20
partial production 57
peer correction 22
Pestalozzi 6
picture compositions on the blackboard 71
primary school curriculum 6
projects 63
prompt-card 37
public pair-work 62
punishment 84
rewards 23
section activity 63
settling activity 46
simple pictures 70
simultaneous pair-work 62
stick figures 70
stirring activities 34
streaming 73
teaching room 62
team teaching 65
transmission type of teaching 61
types of learner 52
unable students 52
wall-charts 66
weak learners 51
work cards 77
Author Index
A
action in case of indiscipline 84
actual occupation 31
anti-social behaviour 85
attitude goals 16
Austen 58
B
backchaining technique 56
balloon substitution table 72
Bates 68
blackboard 66
blackboard drawing 69
blackboard work 67
C
categorising activity 37
chorus work 63
class sections 63
code of conduct 80
concentration span 40
content goals 16
cut-outs 66
D
developmental errors 20
Dewey 6
discipline problems 81
disruptive behaviour 80
drama 79
E
English corner 65
English walls 66
F
faces 70
flexible grouping arrangements 72
full production 57
G
Gefen 52, 59, 72, 73
global intrusion test 2
group work 63
H
H-model 69
I
increasing student participation 67
indirect learning 10
indiscipline 85
interlanguage 20
K
Kilpatrick 6
Koullis 57
L
large classes 51, 60
layout 67
Lee 57
less-able learners 52
M
Macmillan 75
mainstream classes 6
Martin 75
mental engagement 31
mimicry memorisation drills 59
mixed interference 20
mixed-ability classes 72
mixed-ability groups 64
multi-level, classes 52
N
non-streaming 73
O
onomatopoeic sounds 66
overgeneralisation 20
P
partial production 57
peer correction 22
Pestalozzi 6
picture compositions on the blackboard 71
primary school curriculum 6
projects 63
prompt-card 37
public pair-work 62
punishment 84
R
rewards 23
S
section activity 63
settling activity 46
simple pictures 70
simultaneous pair-work 62
stick figures 70
stirring activities 34
streaming 73
T
teaching room 62
team teaching 65
transmission type of teaching 61
types of learner 52
U
unable students 52
W
wall-charts 66
weak learners 51
work cards 77