- •Contents
- •List of abbreviations
- •Preface
- •Introduction
- •Germanic languages
- •Classification of germanic languages
- •Ancient germanic tribes and their classification
- •Germanic alphabets
- •Some phonetic peculiarities of germanic languages
- •Consonants
- •The First Consonant Shift (Grimm’s Law)
- •Ііі. Act The ie aspirated voiced plosives bh, dh, gh changed in Gc to corresponding unaspirated plosives b, d, g, e.G.
- •Verner`s Law
- •Word – Stress
- •Stressed vowels
- •Germanic Fracture (Breaking)
- •Gradation or Ablaut
- •Unstressed Vowels
- •Grammatical peculiarities of germanic languages
- •The Noun
- •The Adjective
- •The Verb
- •Gothic Strong Verbs
- •Vocabulary
- •Old english
- •2.1. Periods in the History of English
- •2.2. Historical Background
- •2.2.1. The Roman Conquest of Britain
- •2.2.2. The Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Britain
- •2.3. Alphabet and Pronunciation
- •Old English Alphabet
- •2.4. Old English Dialects and Written Records
- •2.5. Some Phonetic Changes of the Old English Period
- •2.5.1. Vowels
- •2.5.2. Old English Breaking
- •2.5.3. Palatal Mutation (I-mutation)
- •Monophthongs
- •Diphthongs
- •2.5.4. Back or Velar Mutation (Velarization)
- •2.5.5. Diphthongization of Vowels after Palatal Consonants
- •2.5.6. Lengthening of Short Vowels
- •2.5.7. Unstressed Vowels
- •2.5.8. Consonants
- •2.5.9. Palatalization of Velar Consonants
- •2.5.10. Assimilation, Metathesis, Doubling of Consonants, Loss of Consonants
- •2.6. Old English Morphology
- •2.6.1. Old English Noun: General Characteristics
- •Vowel Stems
- •Consonant Stems
- •2.6.2. Vowel Stems Strong Declension
- •2.6.3. Consonant Stems: Weak Declension, Minor Declensions
- •2.6.4. Root-Stems
- •2.6.5. Pronouns
- •2.6.5.1. Personal Pronouns
- •2.6.5.2. Demonstrative Pronouns
- •Declension of the Demonstrative Pronoun þes
- •2.6.6. Adjectives
- •2.6.6.1. Strong Declension of Adjectives
- •2.6.6.2. Weak Declension of Adjectives
- •2.6.6.3. Degrees of Comparison
- •2.6.7. Adverbs
- •2.6.7.1. Formation of Adverbs
- •2.6.7.2. Comparison of Adverbs
- •2.6.8. The Verb: General Characteristics
- •Conjugation of verbs
- •2.6.8.1. Strong Verbs
- •2.6.8.2. Weak Verbs
- •Conjugation of Weak Verbs
- •2.6.8.3. Preterite-Present Verbs
- •Conjugation of Preterite - Present verbs
- •2.6.8.4. Anomalous verbs
- •Conjugation of the verb dōn
- •Indicative mood
- •2.6.8.5. Suppletive Verbs
- •Conjugation of the verb bēon
- •Indicative mood
- •Conjugation of the verb ʒān
- •Indicative mood
- •2.7. Old English Syntax
- •2.8. The Old English Vocabulary
- •2.8.1. Word-Building
- •Suffixation
- •Prefixation
- •Composition
- •2.8.2. Borrowings
- •Latin borrowings
- •Celtic Borrowings
- •Middle english
- •3.1. Historical Background
- •3.1.1. Scandinavian Invasions
- •3.1.2. The Norman Conquest
- •3.2. Middle English Dialects Rise of the London Dialect
- •3.3. Early Middle English Written Records
- •3.4. Word Stress
- •3.5. Vowels
- •3.5.1. Unstressed Vowels
- •3.5.2. Stressed vowels
- •3.5.2.1. Quantitative Vowel Changes
- •3.5.2.2. Qualitative Vowel Changes
- •Monophthongs
- •3.5.2.3. Monophthongization of Old English Diphthongs
- •3.5.2.4. Rise of New Diphthongs
- •3.6. Evolution of Consonants in Middle English
- •3.7. Spelling Changes in Middle English
- •3.7.1. Changes in the Designation of Vowels
- •3.7.2. Changes in the designation of Consonants
- •3.8. Changes in the Grammatical System
- •3.8.1. Preliminary Remarks
- •3.8.2. The Noun
- •3.8.2.1. Gender
- •3.8.2.2. Number
- •3.8.2.3. Decay of Noun Declensions
- •3.8.3. The Adjective
- •3.8.3.1. Declension of Adjectives in Late Middle English
- •3.8.3.2. Degrees of Comparison
- •3.8.4. Adverbs
- •3.8.4.1. Formation of Adverbs
- •3.8.4.2. Comparison of Adverbs
- •3.8.5. The Pronoun
- •3.8.5.1. Personal Pronouns
- •3.8.5.2. Possessive pronouns
- •3.8.5.3. Demonstrative Pronouns
- •3.8.5.4. Rise of the Articles
- •3.8.6. The Verb: General Characteristics
- •Conjugation of Verbs
- •Conjugation of Verbs Past Indicative
- •3.8.5.1. Changes in the Morphological Classes of Verbs in Middle English and Early New English
- •3.8.6.1. Strong Verbs
- •3.8.6.2. Weak Verbs
- •3.8.6.3. Preterite-present Verbs
- •3.8.6.4. Suppletive verbs
- •Conjugation of the verb bēon in Old English, Middle English and Early New English
- •Conjugation of the verb bēon in Old English, Middle English and Early New English
- •Conjugation of the verb ʒān in Old English, Middle English and Early New English
- •Conjugation of the verb ʒān in Old English, Middle English and Early New English
- •3.8.6.5. Rise of Analytical Forms
- •Future Forms
- •Perfect Forms
- •Passive Forms
- •Continuous Forms
- •3.8.7. Development of the Syntactic System
- •3.9. Middle English Vocabulary Changes
- •3.9.1. Native Derivational Affixes
- •3.9.2. French Derivational Affixes
- •3.9.3. Scandinavian Borrowings
- •3.9.4. French Borrowings
- •New english
- •4.1. The formation of the English National Language
- •4.2. Changes in Pronunciation
- •4.2.1. Development of Unstressed Vowels
- •4.2.1.1. Loss of unstressed –e [ə]
- •4.2.1.2. Loss of Vowels in Intermediate Syllables
- •4.2.2. Stressed Vowels
- •4.2.2.1. The Great Vowel Shift
- •4.2.2.2. Shortening of Long Vowels
- •4.2.2.3. Development of Short Vowels
- •4.2.2.4. The Development of the New Short [л]
- •4.2.2.5. Changes in Diphthongs
- •4.2.2.6. Vowel Changes under the Influence of Consonants
- •4.2.3. Consonants
- •4.2.3.1. Voicing of Voiceless Consonants
- •4.2.3.2. Loss of Consonants Development of [X]
- •Simplification of Consonant Clusters
- •4.2.3.3. Change of [d] to [ð] when Close to [r]
- •4.2.3.4. Development of Sibilants and Affricates in Early New English
- •4.3. Changes in Spelling
- •4.4. Local Dialects in New English
- •4.4.1. Scottish Dialect
- •4.4.2. Northern Dialects
- •4.4.3. Western, Central and Southern Dialects
- •4.5. Some Essential Grammatical Changes of the New English Period: Morphology
- •4.5.1. The Noun
- •4.5.1.1. Number
- •4.5.1.2. Cases
- •4.5.2. The Pronoun
- •4.5.2.1. Personal Pronouns
- •4.5.2.2. Possessive Pronouns
- •4.5.3. The Adjective
- •4.5.4. The Adverb
- •4.5.5. The Verb
- •4.5.5.1. Personal Endings
- •4.5.5.2. Changes in Strong Verbs
- •4.5.5.3. Changes in Weak Verbs
- •4.5.5.4. Rise of Invariable Verbs
- •4.5.5.5. Changes in Preterite-Present Verbs
- •4.5.5.6. Irregular Verbs
- •4.6. New English Syntax
- •4.7. New English Vocabulary Changes
- •4.7.1. Latin Loanwords
- •4.7.2. Latinization of French Loanwords
- •4.7.3. Greek loanwords
- •4.7.4. French Loanwords
- •4.7.5. Mixed vocabulary of New English
- •4.7.6. Italian and Spanish Loanwords
- •4.7.7. Russian Loanwords
- •4.8. The Expansion of English
- •4.9. The English Language in the usa
- •4.9.1. Some peculiarities of American Pronunciation
- •4.9.2. American Spelling
- •4.9.3. Some peculiarities of American Grammar
- •4.9.4. Vocabulary of American English
- •Conclusion
- •Bibliography
2.6.3. Consonant Stems: Weak Declension, Minor Declensions
2.6.3.1. n-stems (weak declension)
n-stems (weak declension) comprised many masculine and feminine nouns and only a few nouns of neuter gender: OE ēaʒe (eye) and OE ēare (ear). They had only two forms in the singular: one form for the nominative case and the other – for genitive, dative and accusative (homonymy of case endings). Masculine n-stems in the nominative singular ended in –a, feminine and neuter ones - in –e.
oxa (ox), ēare (ear), heorte (heart)
|
Masculine gender |
Neuter gender |
Feminine gender |
|||
Case |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Nom. |
oxa |
oxan |
ēare |
ēaran |
heorte |
heortan |
Gen. |
oxan |
oxena |
ēaran |
ēarena |
heortan |
heortena |
Dat. |
oxan |
oxum |
ēaran |
ēarum |
heortan |
heortum |
Acc. |
oxan |
oxan |
ēaran |
ēaran |
heortan |
heortan |
The element -n was originally a stem-building suffix, which has acquired a new grammatical function. Cf.
OE ox-en-a, Russian: им-ен-а, имен; сем-ен-а, сем-ян.
The ModE plural ending -en in oxen comes back to the OE -an in oxan plural. The ending –an (ModE -en) was later extended to some nouns of other declensions, e.g. children, brethren.
2.6.3.2. r-stems
r-stems include five masculine and feminine nouns denoting relationship: fæder (father), brōþor (brother), mōdor (mother), dohtor (daughter), sweostor (sister). The dative case singular of the nouns brōþor, mōdor, dohtor has mutation.
fæder (father), brōþor (brother)
Masculine gender |
||||
Case |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Nom. |
fæder |
fæderas |
brōþor |
brōþor |
Gen. |
fæder, -es |
fædera |
brōþor |
brōþra |
Dat. |
fæder |
fæderum |
brēþer |
brōþrum |
Acc. |
fæder |
fæderas |
brōþor |
brōþor |
mōdor (mother), dohtor (daughter,) sweostor (sister)
Feminine gender |
||||||
Case |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Nom. |
mōdor |
mōdru, -a |
dohtor |
dohtor,-tra,-tru |
sweostor |
sweostor |
Gen. |
mōdor |
mōdra |
dohtor |
dohtra |
sweostor |
sweostra |
Dat. |
mēder |
mōdrum |
dehter |
dohtrum |
sweostor |
sweostrum |
Acc. |
mōdor |
mōdru |
dohtor |
dohtor,-tra,-tru |
sweostor |
sweostor |
r-stems correspond to the Russian nouns мать, дочь and to the Latin nouns of the 3-rd declension: pater, māter; r-stems are probably the only stems that have survived in ModE.
2.6.3.3. es-stems
Es-stems comprised nouns of the neuter gender, though this [s] had long changed into [r] due to rhotacism. In the singular they were declined like neuter a-stems, but in the plural they had a specific inflection, not found outside that group.
lamb (lamb), cealf (calf), cild (child)
Neuter gender |
||||||
Case |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Sg number |
Pl number |
Nom. |
lamb |
lambru |
cealf |
cealfru |
cild |
cild,cildru |
Gen. |
lambes |
lambra |
cealfes |
ceafra |
cildes |
cild(r)a |
Dat. |
lambe |
lambrum |
cealfe |
cealfrum |
cilde |
cildrum |
Acc. |
lamb |
lambru |
cealf |
cealfru |
cild |
cild,cildru |
Note. «Cild» had also an uninflected Nom. Acc. Pl. «cild». In ME «cildru» changed into «childre» and acquired an additional plural ending by analogy with the n-stem, hence children.
Later the endings of the a-stems spread to all the forms of the es-stems nouns. Es-stems correspond to the Russian es-stems nouns: небо – небecа, чудо - чудеса, слово – словеса and to Latin nouns of the 3-rd declension: genus sg – genera pl (gender), opus sg – opera pl (work).