New english

4.1. The formation of the English National Language

The XIV–XVcc. saw the decay of feudalism and the birth of new capitalist relations.

The downfall of feudalism was accompanied by a civil war known as the Wars of Roses (1455-1485). It ended in the battle of Bosworth with the victory of Henry Tudor (Henry the 7th) over Richard the 3rd and the establishment of the absolute power of Tudors. Henry the 7th reduced the power of old nobles and created a new aristocracy out of gentry and town bourgeoisie.

In the XVI c. England became one of the most developed industrial countries of Europe.

The economic concentration and the rise of common market produced great changes in social life and stimulated a renewed interest in learning, science, classical art and literature, in Latin and Greek.

The great geographical discoveries gave a new impetus to the progress of trade and the establishment of ties with Italy, Spain, Russia and the New World. Hence, there came many borrowings from Italian, Spanish, Russian and the language of American Indians.

The economic and political unification played a decisive role in the development of the English nation and new social classes.

One of the most characteristic features of a nation is the national language, which stands above all territorial and social dialects and unites the whole nation.

The English national language developed on the basis of London literary English, established since the age of Chaucer. Cheap printed books made them available not only to the nobility and clergy but to people of lower social ranks.

The London form of speech spread across other regions.

This period is known as the age of Shakespeare or the age of Literary Renaissance (or the Elizabethan age, for it coincided roughly with the reign of Elizabeth).

These were the years of creative work for such celebrated men-of-letters as William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, Francis Beaumont, John Fletcher.

The first explanatory English-English dictionaries and the first English grammars appeared.

The earliest of them are Alexander Gill’s book Logonomia Anglica (that is, English word-law (1621), Charles Butler’s English grammar (1634).

The idea of a strict norm in language belongs to Samuel Johnson, the author of the famous Dictionary (1755).

4.2. Changes in Pronunciation

4.2.1. Development of Unstressed Vowels

4.2.1.1. Loss of unstressed –e [ə]

During the XIV-XV cc., the vowel [ə] in unstressed endings was lost:

1. when it was final, e.g. ME helpe > NE help, ME sone > NE son,

2. when it was followed by a consonant, e.g. ME bookes > NE books.

If the root vowel was long, the letter e in writing remained intact, e.g. ME fowles [΄fu:ləs] > NE fowles [fu: lz], ME tables [΄ta:bləs] > NE tables [ta:blz], ME bathed [΄ba:ðəd] – NE bathed [ba: ðd].

Thus «silent» -e (or«mute» -e) arose.

Sometimes «silent» -e was added to the words with a long root vowel which had never had any unstressed vowel OE hūs > ME hous > NE house [hu:s].

The sound [ə] or its variant [i] remained in a limited number of cases, mostly between sibilants (glasses, ashes, pages) or between dentals (wanted, decided).

Unstressed vowels in the middle of the word were reduced to two varieties: [i:] and [ə]

1. in the first syllable of disyllabic words, e.g.[i:] begin, return; [ə] admire, command;

2. in the second syllable of disyllabic words, e.g. [i:] wishes, ended; [ə] patience, purpose.

If a part of a compound word preserved its meaning, the unstressed syllable did not weaken: hatband, doorstep.

Unstressed [ou] also often preserved its quality: window, sorrow, yellow, fellow.