3 Types of lexical combinability of words:

1) Free combination

Grammatical properties of words are the main factor of their combinability.

Ex.: I’m talking to you. You are writing.

Free combinations permit substitution of any of its elements without semantic change of the other element.

2). Collocations.

Ex.: to commit a murder; Bread & butter; Dark night; Blue sky; Bright day

They are the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words. Speakers become accustomed to such collocations.

Very often they are related to the referential & situational meaning of words.

3). Idioms

Idioms are also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be used together, but the difference – we can’t guess the meaning of the whole idiom from the meanings of its parts.

This criterion is called the degree of semantic isolation.

Ex.: to cry a blue murder = to complain loudly

This classification of idioms according to their structure:

1. Fixed idioms

a) fixed regular idioms

Ex.: It’s a 60-thousand dollar question = difficult question

b) fixed irregular (can be varied on the grammatical level)

Ex.: to have a bee in one’s bonnet (She has.., I have...)

2. Variable (varied on the lexical level)

Ex.: to add fuel to the fire/flame

to mind one’s own business /to mind one business

to nap a cat’s nap / to have a short nap (вздремнуть)

Semantic classification:

2 Criteria:

• The degree of semantic isolation

• The degree of disinformation

1. Opaque in meaning (трудный для понимания) - the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to produce the meaning of the whole. => phraseological fusions

Ex.: to kick the bucket = to die

The degree of semantic isolation is the highest.

2. Semi-opaque - one component preserves its direct meaning=> phraseological unities

Ex.: to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность

3. Transparent - both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense => phraseological combinations

Ex.: to see the light = to understand

There are lots of -idioms (proverbs, saying).

Ex.: Curiosity killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back

-Lots of clichés, quotations.

Clichés form a notable part of the public speaking style. They use clichés because of the intellectual laziness or in the hope of appealing to emotions of smb.

Ex.: to see the light

It’s high time to do smth

( these expressions are store in our mind, ready-made )

-Quotations:

To support our arguments, to add some prominence

Ex.: “I have a dream” M.L.King

“To be or not to be” Shakespeare

Sources of idioms:

1. from our everyday life

Ex.: to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth

to sail under false colour (прятать истинное лицо)

to loose track of smb (потерять кого-либо из виду, давно не видеть)

a leopard can(’t) change its spots

2. from the Bible

Ex.: black sheep, lost sheep (заблудшая овца)

To cast pearls before swine (метать бисер перед свиньями)

3. World literature

Ex.: to fight against Windmills

an ugly duckling (Danish) – гадкий утенок

4. different languages

Ex.: to lose face (Chinese)

“The course of true love has never run smooth” Shakespeare “The 12th night”

“The course of true reforms has never run smooth in Russia” – “the Times”

5. from history

Ex.: to cross the Rubicon

Labours of Hercules

Кунин Classification:

1. Одновершинные (with one peak)

( one peak phraseological units, one form word, one notional )

Ex.: to leave for good; By heart; At bay – быть в отчаянном положении

2. Phrasemes with the structure of subordinate or coordinate word combination.

Ex.: a bitter pill to swallow; All the world & his wife

3. Partly predicative; ( a word + subordinate clause )

Ex.: It was the last straw that broke the camel’s back

4. Verbal with (infinitive, passive)

Ex.: to eat like a wolf; The Rubicon is crossed

5. Phrasal units with a simple or complex sentence structure

Ex.: There is a black sheep in every flock; It was the last straw that broke the camel’s back

Koonin: “Structural-semantic classification”.

1. Nominative

A hard nut to crack

2. Nominative –communicative

The ice is broken

3. Interjectional & modal

(Emotions, feelings)

Oh, my eye! (= Oh, my God!)

As sure as eggs is eggs (просто, как 2х2)

4. Communicative (proverbs, sayings)

There is no smoke without fire.

Nominative:

Substantive: crocodile tears

Adjective: as mad as a hatter, as cool as a cucumber

Adverbial: by & by, to & fro

Verbal: to live like a lord.