Internet

The best way to think of the Internet, or Net as it is often called, is a vast global network of networks connecting computers across the world. At present, more than 33 million people use Internet and over three million computers worldwide are linked in. They use the Net for transferring data, playing games, socializing with other computer users, and sending e-mail.

The Net was dreamt up in the late 1960s by the US Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency which decided that it needed a means by which messages could be sent and received even if phone lines were inoperative. In 1969, there was a network of just four computers. By 1972 the number had risen to 40. About this time the idea of electronic mailbox was born. By 1984 the Internet began to develop into the form we know it today.

The Internet can be divided into five broad areas.

Electronic mail, which is much faster than traditional mail. Anything that can ^b^ digitized (converted into digital form) - pictures, sound, video - can be sent, retrieved, and printed at the other end.

Information sites. This is perhaps the fastest growing area of the Internet as more and more people put their own information pages on line. Computers process vast amounts of information very fast, by specifying a key word or phrase. The computer can then search around the Net until it finds some matches. These information sites are usually stored on big computers that exist all over the world. The beauty of the Net is that you can access all of them from your home, using your own PC.

The World Wide Web, usually referred to as WWW or 3W, is a vast network of information databases that feature text, sound, and even video clips. On the WWW you can go on a tour of a museum or exhibition, see the latest images from outer space, go shopping, and get travel information on hotels and holidays.

Usenet is a collection of newsgroups covering any topic. Each newsgroup consists of messages and information posted by other users. There are more than 10,000 newsgroups and they are popular with universities and businesses.

Telnet programs allow you to use your personal computer to access a powerful mainframe computer.

Exercise 5. Match verbs in A to the phrases in B.

А В

1 .to link in a. information from one computer file to another

2.to transfer b. to a global computer network

3.to retrieve с to a magazine or a special interest group

4.to access d. information from a database

5.to subscribe e. information in a database

Exercise 6. Make the following sentences complete. l.More than 33 million people use the Net for.............

2. It was in the late 1960s when.....................................

3. By 1984......................................................................

4. Internet................................................five broad areas.

5. Anything that can be digitized, can.............................

6. One thing that computers do very well is....................

7. On WWW you can......................................................

8. More than 10,000........................................................

Exercise 7. Put the following sentences in the Subjunctive Mood according to the model:

Model: He is not so quick; he misses the train. - If he were quick, he would not miss the train.

1. He is busy; he does not go to reserve a ticket for the ship. 2. The girl did not know the schedule; she missed the bus. 3. He broke his bicycle; he did not go to the country. 4.1 am tired; I run around too much. 5. We speak on the topic "Travelling" badly; we have no practice in English. 6. He is not attentive; he gets to the railway station in time.

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Exercise 8 Put the Infinitives in brackets in the Subjunctive Mood: . , _suggest that she (to join) our trip. 2. It is necessary that they (to get) plane t.ckets.

1 We all wish that they (to travel) by train. 4. The teacher insisted that we (to get) to L station by bus. 5. I wish you (to go) by a fast train with me yesterday. 6. Come tser so that I (to show) you a schedule. 7. If my brother (to be) here, he would help me to get tram tickets. 8. They wouldn't have missed the tram if they (tc.leave) their h use earlier 9 She wished we (to come) to the station in ten minutes. 10. He left his house early in the morning so that he (to buy) ticket for a ship quickly.

Exercise 9. Use the correct group. i if for a walk, we will take the dog with us. a) we will go b)wego c) we would go d) we have go

2 When they ... the criminals, I shall get my car back.

a) catch b) catches c) will catch d) shall catch

3 Will she be upset if she ... the news ?

a) heard b) is hearing c) hears d) had heard

4 If you boil the water for a long time, it... disappear into the atmosphere.

a) would have b) will have c) would d)will

5. Paul will ruin his jeans if he ... that tree.

a) climbs b) will climb c) climbed d) climb

6 If... a stone into the sea it will sink.

a) you will throw c) you throw

b) you would throw d) you threw

7. If he drops out of college he ... to look for a job.

a) have

c) will have

8. You will catch cold if you ..

b) should have d) would have in rain, a) go out b) went out c) gone out d) would go out

9. Martin ... that if you look after your body it will look after you. a) think b) believes c) believed d) thought

10. If I don't know the answer, I... ask you.

a) shall b) should c) had d)have

11. You ... late for school if you don't leave now.

a) is b) are being c) are d) will be

12. If I had some scissors I... you them, a) would lend b) had lent c) would have lent d) lent

STUDENTS' INDIVIDUAL WORK

Topic 3, Lesson 4

Exercise 1. Read and translate the text.

The pedagogical strength of multimedia is that it uses the natural information-processing abilities that we already possess as humans. The old saying that 'a picture is worth a thousand words' often understates the case especially with regard to moving images, as our eyes are highly adapted by evolution to detecting and interpreting movement.

For the student, one advantage of multimedia courseware over the text-based variety is that the application looks better. If the courseware includes only a few images at least it gives relief from screens of text and stimulates the eye, even if the images have little pedagogical value. More often than not, the inclusion of non­textual media into courseware adds pedagogical value to the application. In this respect, using the text only, even in a creative way, has obvious limitations as compared to the use of both text and pictures.

Multimedia requires high-end computer systems. Sound, images, animation, and especially video, constitute large amounts of data, which slow down, or may not even fit in a low-end computer. Unlike simple text files created in word processing, multimedia packages require good quality computers. A major disadvantage of writing multimedia courseware is that it may not be accessible to a large section of its intended users if they do not have access to multimedia-capable machines. For this reason, courseware developers should think very carefully about the type of multimedia elements that need to be incorporated into applications and include only those that have significant value.

Multimedia has other weaknesses too. While proponents of this new technology are very enthusiastic about its potential, they often leave the financial and technical issues unattended. Development in multimedia are very high and the process of developing effective multimedia takes time.

The critical question, then, is: How do we overcome some of the identified barriers and begin the process of multimedia implementation alongside the instructor, textbook, and blackboard?

Let us look at some examples of what is called 'innovative use'. Let us say a student wants to write a paper on computer architecture. Traditionally, the primary source for obtaining information would be the textbooks generally available in the library.

With access to interactive multimedia, the student would collect various textual materials about the computer architecture from sources on a CD-ROM. With a multimedia approach, the student could also access Web sites on the Internet to get more information. The student could then add film clips on this topic and blend them into a report. Then by adding titles and credits, the student now has a new and original way of communicating his/ her own individual perspective.

Besides students use, teachers should find multimedia of great use in delivering their lessons. For example, a teacher of English language could use a multimedia CD to create a lecture on culture of English-speaking countries by using film clippings and audio tapes, also by incorporating other audio visual information with text to make the subject come alive. All this material is available now.

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Similarly, a university professor might use a multimedia CD to prepare, to date information, or to teach to enliven and add insight to his/her teaching, thereby improving the quality of the course.

The uses of multimedia need not be seen as a tool for classrooms only. In an ' dustrv dealing with hazardous materials, workers need to be trained. It could be risky to provide hands on training. In this case, simulated learning can take the place of actual hands on training by using all the features of interactive multimedia. Training can thus take place individually at the learner' space and on his/her own time. Medical procedures, first-aid training and instruction of paramedics or even surgeons are made both simple and interesting through the use of multimedia. The doctor or paramedic can run through a complete procedure on video disc and analyze all the possible outcomes and can evaluate the possibilities before treatment of the patient.

Exercise 2. List the advantages and disadvantages of multimedia in education. Give the examples of multimedia software.

Exercise 3. Read the text and do the tasks to it.

The internet, a computer-based worldwide information network, is composed of a large number of smaller interconnected networks called internets. These internets may connect tens, hundreds, or thousands of computers, enabling them to share information with each other and to share various resources, such as powerful supercomputers and databases of information. The Internet has made it possible for people all over the world to effectively and inexpensively communicate with each other. Unlike traditional broadcasting media, such as radio and television, the Internet is a decentralized system. Each connected individual can communicate with anyone else on the Internet, can publish ideas, and can sell products with a minimum overhead cost. In the future, the Internet may have a dramatic impact on higher education and business as more universities offer courses and, more companies offer goods and services online.

The internets from which the Internet is composed are usually public access networks, meaning that the resources of the network can be shared with anyone accessing the network. Other types of internets, called intranets, are closed to public use. Intranets are the most common type of computer network used in companies and organizations where it is important to restrict access to the information contained on the network. During the 1990s the Internet has grown tremendously in the number of people using it and the amount of information contained on it. According to the Internet Society, a non-profit society that studies and promotes the use of the Internet, 134 countries had full Internet connection and an additional 52 countries had limited access (for example, e-mail only) in 1996. Surveys performed by International Data Corporation and Matrix Information and Directory Services found that as of September 1997 there were between 53 and 57 million users of the Internet Worldwide.

a) For each of the questions 1-10 decide which of the statements are true or false on the basis of what is stated or implied in what you have heard and put a "+ " if a \ statement is true and a "-" if a statement is false next to the corresponding number on your answer sheet.

1. The main function of the Internet is information exchange.

2. The Internet is made of supercomputers.

3. You should be quite well off to use the Internet efficiently.

4. The Internet has a strong central authority.

5. There may be a great change in higher education soon.

6. The only thing you need to get on the Internet is a computer with the Internet access.

7. You can easily find what you need on the intranet.

8. There has been an Internet boom in the recent decade.

9. More countries in the world have only limited Internet access.

10. It is rather difficult to count the number of Internet users in the world.

b) For each of the questions 11-20 decide which of the answers (a, b, с or d) best complete the statements on the basis of what is stated or implied in what you have heard and mark the corresponding letter with a "+ " on your answer sheet.

1. The Internet is most likely to be associated with:

a) an ad work;

b) a Ned work; .

c) a neat work;

d) a network.

2. The computers in the Internet are:

a) connected to each other;

b) standing on each other

c) looking for each other;

d) not needed at all.

3. One can make a conclusion that:

a) corresponding with a distant friend is much easier now;

b) there are fewer powerful computers now than before;

c) it is difficult to afford using the Internet;

d) you need to be an expert to use the Internet.

4. It can be inferred from the text that:

a) it is more difficult to post an advertisement on the radio than on the Internet;

b) it is more expensive to use the Internet for selling goods;

c) using the Internet for educational purposes is not considered;

d) some universities offer complete Internet training.

5. Where from is it least possible for general public to connect to the Internet?

a) from home;

b) from public library;

c) from a private company;

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a) from an Internet cafe.

f. Internets and intranets differ in:

_a) the cost of use;

_b) accessibility;

_c) the number of supercomputers;

d) the way of connecting computers together.

7 Companies create intranets to:

_a) protect the environment;

b) prevent misuse of important data;

_c) restrict working areas;

d) predict the future.

8 It may be inferred from the text that the Internet Society:

a) has the aim of earning money;

b) does a database research;

c) wants more people in the world to use the Internet;

d) died out in the 1990s.

9. The researches mentioned in the text:

a) were carried out at the same time;

b) could not be trusted;

c) promoted using e-mail;

d) were done independently on each other.

10. One can infer from the text that because of the Internet:

a) more information is now used by fewer people;

b) less information is available;

c) there's recently been a great increase in the information exchange;

d) about 57 million people will never use the Internet.

TEXTS FOR INDIVIDUAL READING

Allan С Ornstein Strategies for Effective Teaching. Loyola University of Chicago: Brown & Benchmark, 1999. pp. 41 - 60. The Effective Teacher To help you appreciate the research findings in this chapter, you might try this exercise. Make a list of teachers you have had about whom you have pleasant memories. List those teachers in whose classes you were not happy. What do you remember about attitudes and behaviors about both types of teachers? As you read this chapter, think about how the attitudes and behaviors of the teachers on the two lists correspond to research findings and information about effective and ineffective teachers.

We will present first an overview of the research on effective teaching and then

^lve basic aspects of teachers: teacher style, teacher interactions, teacher

characteristics, teacher competencies, and teacher effects. In the early stages of

research, up to the mid-1970s, theorists were concerned with teacher processes; that

> teacher behaviors, or the teaching that was going on in the classroom. The attempt

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to define and explain good teaching focused on teacher styles, teacher interactions and teacher characteristics. More recently, researchers have become concerned with teacher products, that is, student outcomes. The assessment of products focuses on teacher competencies and teacher effects.

Review of the Research on Teaching.

Over the years thousands of studies have been conducted to identify the behaviors of successful and unsuccessful teachers. However, teaching is a complex act; what works in some situations with some students may not work in different school settings with different subjects, students, and goals. There will always be teachers who break many of the rules of procedures and methods and yet are profoundly successful. There will always be teachers who follow the rules and are unsuccessful.

Some educational researchers maintain that we cannot distinguish between "good" and "poor" or "effective" and "ineffective" teachers that no one knows for sure or agrees what the competent teacher is, that few authorities can "define, prepare for, or measure teacher competence". They point out that disagreement over terms, problems in measurement, and the complexity of the teaching act are major reasons for the negligible results in judging teacher behavior. The result is that "much of the data have been confusing, contradictory.

The more complex or unpredictable one views teaching as being, the more one is compelled toward concluding that it is difficult to agree upon generalizations about successful teaching.

Other researchers assert that appropriate teaching behaviors can be defined (and learned by teachers), that good or effective teachers can be distinguished from poor or ineffective teachers, and that the magnitude of the effect of these differences on students can be determined. They conclude that the kinds of questions teachers ask, the ways they respond to students, their expectations of and attitudes toward students, their classroom management techniques, their teaching methods, and their general teaching behaviors (sometimes referred to as "classroom climate") all make a difference. However, in some cases the positive effects of teachers upon student performance may be masked or washed out by the relative negative effects of other teachers in the same school. The teacher may not be the only variable, or even the major one, in the teaching-learning equation, but they can make a difference, either positive or negative. Here it should be noted that negative teacher influences have greater impact than positive ones, in that students can be turned into nonlearners and experience loss of self-concept in a matter of weeks as a result of a hostile or intimidating teacher.

If teachers do not make a difference, then the profession has problems. If teachers do not make a difference, the notions of teacher evaluation, teacher accountability, and teacher performance are nonworkable; sound educational policy cannot be formulated, and there is little hope for many students, and there is little value in trying to learn how to teach. However, even if we are convinced that teachers have an effect, it is still true that we are unable to assess with confidence the

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• fluence a teacher has on student performance because the learning variables are nu­merous and the teaching interactions are complex.

Empirical findings are needed if we are to establish realistic expectations concerning teacher effects. In the meantime, we must find strength and confidence in the belief that we can, and often do, make a difference with our students. You may not be successful with all of your students all the time, but as long as you give your best, you will have served well your students, yourself, your colleagues, and your profession. Most of you will succeed - through experience, self-reflection, and productive supervision.

Teacher Styles

Teaching style is viewed as a broad dimension or personality type that encompasses teacher stance, pattern of behavior, mode of performance, and attitude toward self and others.

The statement "Teachers are born, not made" fails to take into account the wealth of knowledge we have about good teaching and how children learn. Teachers can supplement their pedagogical knowledge and practices by observing other good teachers. Assuming that your school has a policy of observation or your supervisor can make arrangements with experienced teachers, you will be able to see how other teachers organize their classrooms. Which of their practices are compatible with your approach to teaching and which might you be able to use? Here are some of the things to look for when you are observing.

1. What evidence was there that the teacher truly understood the needs of the students?

2. What techniques were used to encourage students' respect for each others' turn to talk?

3. What student behaviors in class were acceptable and unacceptable?

4. How did the teacher motivate students?

5. How did the teacher encourage student discussion?

6. In what way did the teacher see things from the students' point of view?

5. In what way did the teacher encourage creative, imaginative work from students? o. What instructional methods were used to make students think about ideas, opinions, or answers?

7. How did the teacher arrange the groups? What social factors were evident within the groups?

8. How did the teacher encourage independent (or individualized) student learning? ". How did the teacher integrate the subject matter with other subjects?

1U. How did the teacher utilize classroom, space/equipment effectively?

М- What did you like and dislike about the physical environment of the classroom?

Teaching styles vary between individuals. One teacher may have a relaxed tyle and another may have a more business-like, firm approach.

Peterson defines teacher style in terms of how teachers utilize space in the

assroom, their choice of instructional activities and materials, and their method of

dent grouping. Still others describe teacher style as an expressive aspect of

aching (characterizing the emotional relationship between students and teachers

such as warm or businesslike) and as an instrumental aspect (how teachers carry out the task of instruction, organize learning, and set classroom standards).

Regardless of which definition of teacher style you prefer, the notion of stability or pattern is central. Certain behaviors and methods are stable over time, even with different students and different classroom situations. There is a purpose or rationale - a predictable teacher pattern even in different classroom contexts. Aspects of teaching style dictated by personality can be modified by early experiences and perceptions and by appropriate training as a beginning teacher. As years pass, your own teacher style will become more ingrained and it will take a more powerful set of stimuli and more intense feedback to make changes. If you watch different teachers at work, including your college professors, you can sense that each one has a style of his or her own for teaching, for structuring the classroom, and delivering the lesson. Descriptive Models of Teaching Styles

Many educators have delineated various teaching styles in descriptive and colorful terms. Herbert Thelen compares teaching styles with characteristics of societal positions or with what appear to be roles associated with other occupations. Frank Riessman's eight teaching styles describe personality types; they were originally based on observations of effective teachers of inner-city students, but they can be used for all teachers. Louis Rubin, more recently, defined six kinds of teaching styles related, to the act of teaching.

The social, psychological, educational climate in the classroom has also something to do with determining teaching style. Nonetheless, no one should be locked into a recommended style, regardless of conventional wisdom, contemporary history, or popular opinion.

Teacher style is a matter of choice and comfort, and what works with one teacher may not work with another teacher. Similarly, operational definitions of good teachers and good teaching styles vary among and within school districts. There is no ideal teacher type or teacher style - and no educational institution (school or college) should impose one on its staff or faculty.

Descriptions of teaching styles

1. Socratic. The image is a wise, somewhat crusty teacher who purposely gets into arguments with students over the subject matter through artful questioning.

2. Town-Meeting. Teachers who adapt this style use a great deal of discussion and play a moderator role that enables students to work out answers to problems by themselves.

3. Apprenticeship. This person serves as a role model toward learning, as well as toward occupational outlook, perhaps even toward general life.

4. Boss-Employee. This teacher asserts his or her own authority and provides rewards and punishments to see that the work is done.

5. Good-Old Team Person. The image is one of a group of players listening to the coach and working as a team.

6. Compulsive Type. This teacher is fussy, teaches things over and over, and is concerned with functional order and structure.

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7. Boomer. This teacher shouts out in a loud, strong voice: "You're going to learn"; there is no nonsense in the classroom.

8. Maverick. Everybody loves this teacher, except perhaps the principal. She raises difficult questions and presents ideas that disturb.

9. Coach. This teacher is informal, earthy, and maybe an athlete; he or she is physically expressive in conducting the class.

10. Quiet One. Sincere, calm, but definite, this teacher commands both respect and attention.

11. Entertainer. This teacher is free enough to joke and laugh with the students.

12. Secular. This person is relaxed and informal with children; she will have lunch with them, or play ball with them.

13. Academic. The teacher is interested in knowledge and in the substance of ideas.

14. Explanatory. The teacher is in command of the subject matter and explains particular aspects of the lesson.

15. Inspiratory. The teacher is stimulating and exhibits emotional involvement in teaching.

16. Informative. The teacher presents information through verbal statements. The student is expected to listen and follow the instructions of the teacher.

17. Corrective. The teacher provides feedback to the student—analyzing the work, diagnosing for errors, and presenting corrective advice.

18. Interactive. Through dialogue and questioning, the teacher facilitates the development of students' ideas.

19. Programmatic. The teacher guides the students' activities and facilitates self-instruction and independent learning.

Teacher Styles

I have found it convenient and useful to characterize teaching by the style of three of the best teachers I ever had: (1) Maggie Didactics, a strict votary of constant and often nauseating drill on basic ingredients of teaching French and German to high scholars; (2) Edgar Heuristics, a professor of philosophy whose classes were brilliant adaptations of the Socratic dialogue, and (3) Fanny Philetics, a charming sixth-grade teacher whose many early adolescent pupils would labor gladly at any school task to gain her approval and affection. Most of Maggie's pupils disliked her, but in 20 years none of them failed a College Board examination in French or German. Some students were annoyed by the skirmishes of intellect and wit that Edgar Heuristics staged in the classroom, but many of his pupils became distinguished scholars. Fanny Philetics' classes were not well-organized, but many of her pupils achieved remarkable scholastic results to merit her approval.

In 12 years of school, one hopes that pupils would encounter a fair proportion of teachers who would elicit their enthusiastic efforts. As for teachers, they too might hope that over the years they would encounter a fair share of pupils for whom their style of teaching would qualify them as "the best teacher I ever had".

Until such happy coincidences can be "planned", pupils and teachers will have to learn to adjust to a variety of styles - the mark of the good student and the good teacher.

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Research on Teacher Styles

Lippitt and White laid the groundwork for a more formal classification of what a teacher does in the classroom. Initially, they developed an instrument for describing the "social atmosphere" of children's clubs and for quantifying the effects of group and individual behavior. The results have been generalized in numerous research studies and textbooks on teaching. The classic study used classifications of authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire styles.

The authoritarian teacher directs all the activities of the program. This style shares some characteristics with what is now called the direct teacher. The democratic teacher encourages group participation and is willing to let students share in the decision-making process. This behavior U typical of what is now called the indirect teacher. The laissez-faire teacher (now often considered to be an unorganized or ineffective teacher) provides no (or few) goals and directions for group or individual behavior.

One of the most ambitious research studies on teacher styles was conducted by Ned Handers and his associates between 1954 and 1970. Flanders focused on developing an instrument for quantifying verbal communication in the classroom. Every three seconds observers sorted teacher talk into one of tour categories of indirect behavior or one of three categories of direct behavior. Student talk was categorized as response or initiation, and there was a final category representing silence or when the observer could not determine who was talking.

Flanders' indirect teacher tended to overlap with Lippitt and White's democratic teaching style, and the direct teacher tended to exhibit behaviors similar to their authoritarian teacher. Flanders found that students in the indirect classrooms learned more and exhibited more constructive and independent attitudes than students in the direct classrooms. All types of students in all types of subject classes learned more working with the indirect (more flexible) teachers, to an interesting side note, Flanders found that as much as 80 percent of the classroom time is generally consumed in teacher talk. We will return to this point later.

The following questions, developed by Amidon and Flanders, represent a possible direction for organizing and analyzing observations.

1. What is the relationship of teacher talk to student talk? This can be answered by comparing the total number of observations in categories 1 to 7 with categories 8 and 9.

2. Is the teacher more direct or indirect? This can be answered by comparing categories 1 to 4 (indirect) with categories 5 to 7 (direct).

3. How much class time does the teacher spend lecturing? This can be answered by comparing category 5 with the total number of observations in categories 1 to 4 and 6 to 7.

4. Does the teacher ask divergent or convergent questions? This can be answered by comparing category 4 to categories 8 and 9.

The data obtained from this system do not show when, why, or in what context teacher-student talk occurs, only how often particular types of interaction occur.

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Nonetheless, the system is useful for making teachers aware of their interaction behaviors in the classroom.

The Flanders system can be used to examine teacher-student verbal behaviors in any classroom, regardless of grade level or subject. Someone can observe the verbal behavior of a prospective, beginning, or even experienced teacher and show how direct or indirect the teacher is. (Most prospective and beginning teachers tend to exhibit direct behavior, since they talk too much. Professors, also, usually lecture and thus exhibit many direct behaviors while teaching). In fact, education students and student teachers often associate good teaching with some form of lecturing, since most of their recent teaching models are professors who often do a lot of talking - too much for younger students who lack the maturity, attentiveness, and locus to cope with a passive learning situation for any length of time. Beginning teachers, therefore, must often unlearn what they have learned by their experiences with their own professors.

Teachable Groups

The analysis of teaching styles eventually leads to two questions: Is student learning affected by the teachers' use of different approaches or styles? Are different teaching strategies effective for different students? Assuming the answer is "yes" in both cases, the aim is to match the appropriate teacher style and strategies with the appropriate group of students in order to achieve the best teaching-learning situation.

Herbert Thelen calls this the proper "fit". He states that teachers recognize four kinds of students: good, bad, indifferent, and maladjusted. Each teacher places different students in these categories; students considered teachable by one teacher may not be by another. The proper fit between teacher and students results in the best kind of classroom or best group - what is defined as the teachable group. Thelen contends that homogeneous grouping is essential for a group to become more "teachable." A teacher in such a group accomplishes more with students than in groups in which the range of ability and behavior is wide; moreover, it is easier to fit students and teachers together to achieve the best combinations. Any grouping that does not attempt to match students and teachers can have only "accidental success."

Other researchers have addressed the problem of teachable groups and point out that effective teachers vary for students with different learning characteristics and socioeconomic backgrounds, as well as different grade levels and subjects. For example. Donald Medley presents one of the most comprehensive reviews of 289 teacher process and product studies. He concludes that effective teachers behave differently with different types of students. The most effective teachers of low socioeconomic status elementary school students (1) spend less time discussing matters unrelated to lesson content, (2) present structured and sequential learning activities, (3) permit little time on independent and small group work, (4) initiate low-level and narrowly defined questions and are less likely to amplify or discuss student answers, (5) spend little time on and discourage student-initiated questions and comments, (6) provide less feedback on student-initiated questions, (7) engage in fewer teacher rebukes, and (8) spend less time on discipline matters. The type of

instruction, type of questions, and management techniques tend to be opposite to middle-class students.

Three things are important to note trough Medley's review. First, his notion of changing teaching strategies for different students is similar to Thelen's "fit" between teachers and student to establish teachable groups. Teachable students for one teacher may be quite different to another, and not all students are easy to teach or even teachable under normal conditions. Some good teachers cannot successfully teach some types of problem students. Different students need different teaching techniques.

Second, Medley's description of effective teaching behaviors for low socioeconomic students does not resemble the current progressive model of instruction. The least effective teachers are those who ask the most high-level and fewest low-level questions, whose students ask more questions and get more feedback, and who amplify or discuss student-initiated comments. Teachers who use more low-level questions and fewer high-level ones, whose students initiate fewer questions and who tend not to discuss what students say are the most effective. Unquestionably, Medley's ideas are threatening and open to criticism, since they can lead to tracking students by ability and restricting low socioeconomic status students to limited cognitive experiences.

Finally, Medley's ideas appear to be very' much in line with teaching approaches and methods that have been identified by current researchers as highly successful with low-achieving students both at the elementary and secondary grade -levels: basic skill, drill, time on task, feedback, competency and mastery learning approaches; they coincide with instruction labeled "direct and "explicit." Such teacher styles tend to coincide with the Brophy, Doyle, Evertson, Good, and Rosenshine models (discussed below in this chapter), but are in opposition to a good deal of traditional and conventional wisdom that favors a warmer, more humanistic teacher (especially at the elementary school level).

Teacher Interaction

An approach to the study of teacher behavior is based on systematic observation of teacher-student interaction in the classroom, as, for example, in the work of Flanders, which we have already described. The analysis of interaction often deals with a specific teacher behavior and a series of these behaviors constituting a larger behavior, described and recorded by an abstract unit of measurement that may vary in size and time (for example, every three seconds a recording is made).

In a classic study of teacher-student interaction, Arno Bellack and colleagues analyzed the linguistic behavior of teachers and students in the classroom. Classroom activities are carried out in large part by verbal interaction between students and teachers; to classroom activities can be carried out without the use of language. The research, therefore, focused on language as the main instrument of communication in teaching. Four basic verbal behaviors or "moves" were labeled.

1. Structuring moves serve the function of focusing attention on subject matter or classroom procedures and beginning interaction between students and teachers.

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They set the context for subsequent behavior. For example, beginning з class by announcing the topic to be discussed is a structuring move.

2. Soliciting moves are designed to elicit a verbal or physical response. For example, the teacher asks a question about the topic with the hope of encouraging a response from the students.

3. Responding moves occur in relation to and after the soliciting behaviors. Their ideal function is to fulfill the expectations of the soliciting behaviors.

4. Reacting moves are sometimes occasioned by one or more of the above behaviors, but are not directly elicited by them. Reacting behaviors serve to modify, clarify, or judge the structuring, soliciting, or responding behavior.

According to Bellack, these pedagogical moves occur in combinations he called "teaching cycles". A cycle usually begins with a structuring or soliciting move by the teacher - both of which are initiative behaviors; continues with a responding move from a student; and ends with some kind of reacting move by the teacher. In most cases the cycle begins and ends with the teacher. The investigators' analysis of the classroom also produced several insights.

1. Teachers dominate verbal activities. The teacher-student ratio in words spoken is 3:1. (This evidence corresponds with Flanders' finding that teachers' talk is 80 percent of classroom activity.)

2. Teacher and student moves are clearly defined. The teacher engages in structuring, soliciting, and reacting behaviors, while the student is usually limited to responding. (This also corresponds with Flanders' finding that most teachers dominate classrooms in such a way as to make students dependent.)

3. Teachers initiate about 85 percent of the cycles. The basic unit of verbal interaction is the soliciting-responding pattern. Verbal interchanges occur at a rate of slightly less than 2 cycles per minute.

4. In approximately two-thirds of the behaviors and three-fourths of the verbal interplay, talk is content-oriented.

5. About 60 percent of the total discourse is fact-oriented.

In summary, the data suggest that the classroom is teacher-dominated, subject-centered, and fact-oriented. The students' primary responsibility seems to be to respond to the teacher's soliciting behaviors. As a teacher, you should want to break this cycle of teaching.

In another study Smith and Meux focused on the linguistic behavior of the teacher. Teacher linguistic behavior was divided into "episodes" and "monologues". The teacher episode is defined as one or more verbal exchanges between two or more speakers. Questions by the teacher and answers by the students constitute the most common episode. The teacher monologue consists of a solo performance by a speaker addressing the group; the teacher who gives directions or a command is engaged in a monologue. Effective teachers tend to engage in episodes. The ideal episode seems to be an exchange in which several speakers respond to an original question or statement. Thus the most effective linguistic behavior is not teacher to student or student to teacher, but teacher to several students.

A series of episodes or monologues form a cycle that includes one or more of verbal entries (that is, questions or statements that initiate the exchange);

1. Drifting entries are concerned with how words are used to refer to objects; "What does the word ... mean?"

2. Describing entries ask for an explanation or description about something; "What did John find out?"

3. Designating entries identify something by name: "What mountain range did we see in the film?"

4. Stating entries involve statements of issues, proofs, rules, theories, conclusions, beliefs, and so on: "What is the plot of the story?"

5. Reporting entries ask for a summary or a report on a book or document: "Can you summarize the major points of the book?"

6. Substituting entries require the performance of a symbolic operation, usually of mathematic or scientific value: "Who can write the equation on the chalkboard?"

7. Evaluating entries ask for judgment or estimate of worth of something: "Would you like to assess the validity of the argument?"

8. Opinioning entries ask for a conclusion, affirmation, or denial based upon evidence: "How do you feel President Clinton will be judged by historians?"

Most beginning teachers, and even a large percentage of experienced teachers, interact with their students at the first three levels or verbal entries; that is, defining, describing, and designating. This basically leads to the teaching of knowledge and facts, not high-order thinking. Good teaching requires reflection, and as a beginning teacher it is important that you become aware of these methods of verbal communication and incorporate more sophisticated questions or statements with your teaching (levels four to eight).

Nonverbal Communication

According to Miles Patterson, nonverbal behavior in the classroom serves five teacher functions: (1) providing information, or elaborating upon a verbal statement; (2) regulating interactions, such as pointing to someone; (3) expressing intimacy or liking, such as smiling or touching a student on the shoulder; (4) exercising social control, reinforcing a classroom rule, say, by proximity or distance, and (5) Facilitating goals, as when demonstrating a skill that requires motor activity or ges­turing. These categories are not mutually exclusive; there is some overlap, and nonverbal cues may serve more than one function depending on how they are used.

Although the teaching-learning process is ordinarily associated with verbal interaction, nonverbal communication operates as a silent language that influences the process. What makes the study of nonverbal communication so important and fascinating is that some researchers contend that it comprises about 65 percent of the social meaning of the classroom communication system. As the old saying goes, "Action speaks louder than words".

In a recent study of 225 teachers (and school principals) in 45 schools, Stephens and Valentine observed 10 specific nonverbal behaviors: (1) smiles or

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frowns, (2) eye contact, (3) head nods, (4) gestures, (5) dress, (6) interaction distance, n) touch, (8) body movement, (9) posture.

CRITICAL THINKING IN EVERYDAY WORLD

Every teacher believes she teaches children to think. If she didn't, she would probably have tried a different occupation. But the way we teach children to think in schools often has little to do with the everyday world, and, indeed, what works in school thinking may not work outside. For example, in the everyday world, we need to recognize problems when faced with them; in school, teachers hand problems to students. In the everyday world, we have to figure out the exact nature of the problem confronting us at a given time; in school, teachers define problems for us. In the everyday world, problems are highly contextualized: There is a great deal of background information that enters into our solutions to problems and the decisions we make. For example, the information needed to decide whether to buy a car, and, if so, what kind to buy, can't be stated in a couple of sentences.

School problems, in contrast, are often decontextualized, with the result that children come to think that problems can be stated much more simply than is true outside academia. School problems, too, are well-structured: There is usually a clear path to solution. In contrast, everyday problems tend to be restructured, with no clear path leading to an answer. Indeed, in everyday life, usually there is no one right answer, so unlike the multiple-choice and fill-in-the-blanks tests we give. Schools also ill-prepare us for working in groups, despite the fact that in the everyday world, there are few problems that are solved totally on one's own, without the heed to talk to others about possible solutions. The bottom line is that to teach children to think, we need to teach them in a way that prepares them for life outside of school, not just life in the classroom, which may bear little resemblance to what goes on outside it.

Further caution is needed. Thinking skills programs often stress "right" answers and "objectively scorable" test items; therefore, they are removed from real-world relevance. Most problems and decisions in real life have social, economic, and psychological implications. They involve interpersonal relationships and judgments about people, personal stress and crisis, and dilemmas involving responsibility and choice. How a person deals with illness, aging, or death or with less momentous events such as starting a new job or meeting new people has little to do with the way a person thinks in class or on critical thinking tests. But such life situations are im­portant matters. In stressing cognitive skills, educators tend to ignore the realities of life. Being an A student in school guarantees little after school and in real life. There are many other factors associated with the outcomes of life - and many of them have little to do with critical thinking or even intelligence. Thus, we need to keep in mind social, psychological and moral components of learning, as well as "luck" or what some of us might call the unaccounted for variables in the outcomes of life.

Creative Thinking

Standardized tests do not always measure creativity accurately; in fact, we have difficulty agreeing on what creativity is and who is creative; all children who are normal are potentially creative, yet many parents and teachers impose so many

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restrictions on their natural behaviors that the children learn that creativity gets them into trouble and earns them disapproval. Parents often react negatively to children's inquisitiveness and "messing around". Teachers and parents impose rules of order, conformity, and "normalcy" to suit themselves, not the children.

There are many types of creativity - artistic, dramatic, scientific, athletic, manual - yet we tend to talk about creativity as an all-encompassing term and usually limit the term to cognitive or intellectual endeavors. Educators tend to assess people as smart or dumb based on their performance in one or two areas of intelligence, say, linguistic or mathematical ability. Because of this narrow view of human abilities and this insensitivity to how individuals differ, schools often prevent the development of a positive self-concept in young children who have creative abilities other than in the cognitive domain. The potential talents of many creative children are lost because of our fixation on specific and limited kinds of knowledge.

Creative students are often puzzling to teachers. They are difficult to characterize, their novel answers are threatening, and their behavior often deviates from what is considered normal or proper. Curriculum specialists tend to ignore them in their plans, and teachers usually ignore them in their program and classroom assignments. Little money is earmarked to support special programs and personnel for them. Even if creativity is recognized, educators often lump "gifted" children together without distinguishing between intellectual and creative talents or between different types of creativity.

Robert Steinberg identified six attributes associated with creativity from a list of 131 mentioned by laypeople and professors in the arts, science, and business: (1) lack of conventionality, (2) intellectuality, (3) esthetic taste and imagination, (4) decision-making skills and flexibility, (5) perspicacity (in questioning social norms), and (6) drive for accomplishment and recognition. He also makes important distinctions among creativity, intelligence, and wisdom. Although they are mutually exclusive categories, they are interrelated constructs. Wisdom is more clearly associated with intelligence than is creativity, but differs in emphasis upon mature judgment and use of experience with difficult situations. Creativity overlaps more with intelligence than it does with wisdom, but there is more emphasis on imagination and unconventional methods. Intelligence deals with logical and analytical constructs.

According to Carl Rogers, the essence of creativity is novelty, and, hence, we have no standard by which to judge it. In fact, the more original the product, the more likely it is to be judged by contemporaries as foolish or evil." The individual creates primarily because creating is self-justifying and because the behavior or product is self-actualizing. (This is the humanistic side of creativity, even though the process and intellect involved in creating are cognitive in nature.)

Erich Fromm defines the creative attitude as the willingness to be puzzled (to orient oneself to something without frustration), the ability, to concentrate, the ability to experience oneself as a true originator of one's acts, and the willingness to accept the conflict and tension caused by the lack of tolerance for creative ideas.

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These studies show that there is little agreement on a definition of creativity except that it represents a quality of mind and is associated with intelligence. For teachers, the definition of creativity comes down to how new ideas have their origin. We are dealing with processes that are both conscious and unconscious and both observable and unrecognizable. Because unconscious and unrecognizable processes are difficult to deal with in the classroom, there is often misunderstanding between teachers and creative students.

Teachers generally require "reactive" thinking from their students; that is, they expect them to react to questions, exercises, or test items and give a preferred answer. They tend to discourage "proactive" thinking, that is, generating novel questions and answers. This is the way most teachers were taught, and they feel uneasy about not having "right" answers. Some teachers do try to develop critical thinking in their students, but they need to go beyond reactive thinking and even beyond critical thinking and encourage learners to generate ideas. Society needs generative thinkers to plan, to make decisions, to deal with social and technological problems. Teachers need to let students know that having the right answer is not always important, that depth of understanding is important, and that different activities require different abilities. Teachers need to understand that nearly all students have the potential for creative thinking.

In order to stimulate creative thinking, teachers should encourage students to make inferences, encourage them to think intuitively, and use inquiry-discovery teaching techniques. Three types of inferences have creative potential: (1) elaboration of characteristics, categories, or concepts (For example, a student is told some of the objects in a category are "right", some "wrong". The problem is to infer from this information the definition of the category); (2) elaboration of causality (What were the causes of World War 1? Why did the compound turn into gas?); and (3) elaboration of background information (making inferences about possible effects of events or facts from past events or facts in order to make decisions and solve problems).

Intuitive thinking is a cognitive process that has been discouraged because traditional teaching relies on facts and rote. A good thinker, according to Jerome Bruner, is creative and has an intuitive grasp of subject matter. Intuition is part of the process of discovery; investigating hunches and playing with ideas can lead to discoveries and additions to the storehouse of knowledge. The steps involved in intuitive thinking often cannot be differentiated or defined; intuition involves cognitive maneuvers "based on implicit perception of the total problem. The thinker arrives at an answer, which may be right or wrong, with little, if any, awareness of the process by which he reached it". Teachers must encourage students to make educated guesses, to follow hunches, and to make leaps in thinking. To instill fear of being wrong, to discourage independent and/or innovative thinking, on the basis that the student does not have the right answer, means to stifle creativity.

The Role of the Teacher in Fostering Creativity

Teachers must encourage students to make educated guesses, to follow hunches, and to make leaps in thinking. Not having a clear account of how we obtain

an answer is sometimes secondary; understanding the nuances and larger concepts is more important.

In inquiry-discovery techniques of teaching, students are not presented with subject matter in its final form; questions, answers, solutions, and information are devised and derived by the students. The techniques can be adapted to students of all ages. In this connection, Ronald Bonnstetter summarizes the most desirable teacher behaviors observed over a five-year period in more than one thousand exemplary science programs across the country. These behaviors were considered most effective in fostering inquiry-discovery skills among students in science courses. In general, the list of behaviors encourages students to "mess around", to explore, to experiment, to appreciate new techniques, to respect differing (as well as novel) ideas, to make mistakes and learn from them. Students taught by teachers who exhibit these behaviors tend to be more creative, more innovative, and more at ease with themselves as well as their peers and teachers than students taught by teachers who exhibit more conventional methods of teaching.

Most people would agree that it is tremendously important to society that the creative abilities of our children and youth be identified arid developed - important for the welfare of our civilization.

Guidelines for Teaching Creativity

The teacher must provide, and give credit, for self-initiated learning. Creative kids are sometimes mislabeled as lazy or as daydreamers because they spend some of their time sitting and thinking - not visibly busy; sometimes their thoughts are interrupted, their questions rejected, their daydreams ridiculed; their ideas go unexpressed and their judgments are unsought. Even worse,

Because they don't always fit the conventional mold in the classroom, they are increasingly labeled as "disabled learners" and funneled into an educational wasteland. Teachers must wake up to the unused talents of these students, and see beyond mislabeling such as "learning disabled" or "behavioral disabled". They must also awaken their own creative juices and thinking. Below are fifteen recommendations for enhancing the students' own creative processes in class.

1. Make students more sensitive to their environment.

2. Encourage manipulation of objects and ideas.

3. Develop tolerance toward new ideas.

4. Encourage students to explore, test, search, and predict.

5. Resist one acceptable answer or a set pattern.

6. Teach skills for avoiding peer sanctions.

7. Teach students to value their own creativity.

8. Encourage self-initiated and independent learning.

9. Look and listen carefully; stir up the uninspired; don't accept superficial answers.

10. Make available different resources for working out ideas.

11. Encourage the habit of working out the full implication of ideas.

12. Provide active and quiet places - where students can "mess around" or "do their thing"; however, provide guidance and direction.

13. Integrate knowledge in a variety of subjects.

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14. Keep alive the excitement of learning and thinking; encourage, stimulate, motivate.

15. Develop adventure and spirit in the classroom.

Cognitive psychology has become the dominant school for explaining most concepts and principles of teaching and learning. It helps explain the relationship between motivation and learning, as well as moral and cognitive development. Although motivation, morality, and cognition represent different domains of learning, and attitudes and behaviors about each domain develop differently, the way learners come to feel, think, and understand rests on the interaction of these areas of learning.

The teacher is expected to consider that each student develops differently, although there are some common characteristics based on age. Different learning domains may also require specific teaching strategies. Suggestions written in the form of questions serve as a reminder yardstick or guide for teachers as they deal with specific situations.

VARIANT I 1, Answer the question: What is the difference between teacher processes and teacher products? How can the interaction between the teacher and students in the classroom be measured?

2. Agree or disagree: Research on teacher behavior has looked at teacher styles, teacher-student interaction, teacher characteristics, teacher competencies, and teacher effects.

3. Things to do: Volunteer to teach a lesson in class for about ten minutes. Use a simplified version of the Flanders interaction analysis scale (direct vs. indirect) or Bellack's verbal behaviors (structuring, soliciting, responding, reacting). Note whether there is agreement among class members in categorizing your teacher behavior.

VARIANT II

1. Answer the question: What are the characteristics of a good teacher? What is the difference between teacher characteristics and teacher competencies?

2. Agree or disagree: Although much remains to be learned about successful teaching, research has identified some teacher behaviors that seem to be effective and influence student performance.

3. Things to do: Recall three or four of your favorite teachers. Compare their teacher characteristics, as you remember them, with the list of successful characteristics compiled by Barr. Which characteristic on Barr's list do you think they possess?

VARIANT III

1. Answer the question: What evidence was there that the teacher responded to students' individual differences? What evidence was there that the teacher responded to students' affective development?

2. Agree or disagree: Recent research on effective teaching has shifted from the process of teaching to the products of teaching.

3. Interview several experienced teachers concerning the recommended teacher principles and methods of Rosenshine, Gage, Brophy, and Evertson. Do the teachers support or reject the recommendations? What reservations do teachers bring up? What do they like about the recommendations?

VARIANT IV

1. Answer the question: Which instructional methods interested the students? How did the teacher provide for transitions between instructional activities?

2. Agree or disagree: The classic, important research on teaching prior to the 1970s was the work of A. S.Barr, Arno Bellack, Ned Flanders, and David Ryans. These researchers focused on teacher styles, teacher-student interactions, and teacher characteristics - that is, the process, what was happening in the classroom or the

behavior of the teacher.

3. Things to do: Observe two or three teachers (or professors) while they teach. Categorize them as novice, advanced beginning, competent, proficient, or expert. Defend your reasoning.

VARIANT V

1. Answer the question: What practical life experiences (or activities) were used by the teacher to integrate concepts being learned? How did the teacher minimize student frustration or confusion concerning the skills or concepts being taught?

2. Agree or disagree: Research on teacher behavior has looked at teacher styles, teacher-student interaction, teacher characteristics, teacher competencies, and teacher

effects.

3. Things to do: Recall three or four of your favorite teachers. Compare their teacher characteristics, as you remember them, with the list of successful characteristics compiled by Barr. Which characteristic on Barr's list do you think they possess?

VARIANT VI

1. Answer the question: What is the difference between teacher processes and teacher products? How can the interaction between the teacher and students in the

classroom be measured?

2. Agree or disagree: Although much remains to be learned about successful teaching, research has identified some teacher behaviors that seem to be effective and influence student performance.

3. Things to do: Interview several experienced teachers concerning the recommended teacher principles and methods of Rosenshine, Gage, Brophy, and Evertson. Do the teachers support or reject the recommendations? What reservations do teachers bring up? What do they like about the recommendations?

VARIANT VII 1. Answer the question: What are the characteristics of a good teacher? What is the difference between teacher characteristics and teacher competencies?

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2 Agree or disagree: Recent research on effective teaching has shifted from the process of teaching to the products of teaching.

3 Things to do: Observe two or three teachers (or professors) while they teach. Categorize them as novice, advanced beginning, competent, proficient, or expert. Defend your reasoning.

VARIANT VIII

1, Answer the question: What evidence was there that the teacher responded to students' individual differences? What evidence was there that the teacher responded to students' affective development?

2. Agree or disagree: The classic, important research on teaching prior to the 1970s was the work of A. S.Barr, Arno Bellack, Ned Flanders, and David Ryans. These researchers focused on teacher styles, teacher-student interactions, and teacher characteristics - that is, the process, what was happening in the classroom or the behavior of the teacher.

3. Things to do: Volunteer to teach a lesson in class for about ten minutes. Use a simplified version of the Flanders interaction analysis scale (direct vs. indirect) or Bellack's verbal behaviors (structuring, soliciting, responding, reacting). Note whether there is agreement among class members in categorizing your teacher behavior.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE

Appendix 1 Структура речения ТИПИ РЕЧЕНЬ

Залежно вщ мети висловлювання в англшськш Moei розр1зняють так1 типи речень:

а) розповщш (declarative sentences):

English is spoken as a native language by nearly Англшська мова е рщною для майже three hundred million people. трьохсот мшьйошв людей.

б) питальш (interrogative sentences):

Have you been to London? Ви були в Лондош?

Where do you live? Де ти живеш?

в) спонукалып (imperative sentences):

Open the window. Вщчинпъ вкно.

г) окличш (exclamatory sentences):

What a beautiful room! Яка чудова юмната!

За будовою рече ння подшяються на п р о с т i (simple):

The steamer arrived at the port yesterday.

Парохщ прибув до порту вчора. та складш (composite):

The agreement was signed, and the delegation left Kyiv.

Угоду було тдписано i делегация поУхала з Киева.

Просте речения може бути поширеним (extended) i непоширеним (unextended). Складш речения подшяються на складносурядш (compound) i складнотдрядт (complex).

(THE ACTIVE VOICE) Активний стан. Часи активного стану.

Для вираження часу виконувано! да - тепершньо1, минуло!' i майбутньо'1 - англ1йське д1еслово мае систему граматичних чаав (Tenses). Граматичш часи подшяються на 4 групи:

1. Група неозначених 4aciB (Indefinite Tenses). Ця група складаеться з тепершнього неозначсного часу (Present Indefinite Tense), минулого неозначеного часу ((Past Indefinite Tense) i майбутнього неозначеного часу (Future Indefinite

Tense):

Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Future Indefinite

I write letters every day. I wrote a letter yesterday. I shall write a letter to-

morrow. Я пишу листи кожен день. Я написав листа вчора. Я буду писати лист завтра.

2. Група тривалих 4acie (Continuous Tenses). Ця група складаеться з теперйцнього тривалого часу (Present Continuous Tense), минулого тривалого часу (Past Continuous Tense) i майбутнього тривалого часу (Future Continuous Tense):

Present Continuous Past Continuous Future Continuous

I am writing a letter(at the I was writing a letter at five I shall be writing a letter at present moment). o'clock. five o'clock.

Я пишу листа (в цей момент) Я писав листа в п'ять годин. Я буду писати листа в п'ять

годин.

3.Група завершених 4acie (Perfect Tenses). Ця група складаеться з тепершнього перфектного часу (Present Perfect Tense), минулого перфектного часу (Past Perfect Tense) i майбутнього перфектного часу (Future Perfect Tense):

Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect

I have written the letter. I had written the letter by five I shall have written the letter

o'clock. by five o'clock.

Я (вже) написав листа (до Я написав листа до 5 години. Я напишу листа до 5 години.

тепершнього моменту).

4. Група «перфектних тривалих чаав» (Perfect Continuous Tenses). Ця група складаеться з тепершнього перфектного тривалого часу (Present Perfect Continuous Tense), минулого перфектного тривалого часу (Past Perfect Continuous Tense) i з майбутнього перфектного тривалого часу (Future Perfect Continuous Tense):

Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Future Perfect Continuous

I have been writing the letter I had been writing the letter for I shall have been an writing the for an hour. hour when he came. letter for an hour when he

comes. Я пишу листа вже годину. Я писав листа вже годину Я буду писати листа вже

коли BiH прийшов. годину коли вш прийде.

KpiM цих форм е ще 4 форми «майбутнього часу в минулому» (Future in the Past), a

саме, майбутнш неозначений в минулому (Future Indefinite in the Past), майбутнш тривалий в

минулому (Future Continuous in the Past), майбутнш перфектний в минулому (Future Perfect in

the Past) i майбутнш перфектний тривалий час в минулому (Future Perfect Continuous in the

Past).

Форми Future in the Past:

Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous

I said that I should I said that I should be I said that I should I said that I should

write a letter to him. writing a letter at 5 have written the letter have been writing the

o'clock. by 5 o'clock. letter for an hour when

he came.

Я сказав, що напишу Я сказав, що напишу Я сказав, що Я сказав, що

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писатиму листа до 5 писатиму лист вже годин. годину коли bjh

прийде.

Appendix 2 УЗГОДЖЕННЯ ЧАС1В (SEQUENCE OF TENSES)

В укра'шськш mobj д1еслово-присудок пщрядного додаткового речения може вясиватись у будь-якому 4aci (тепершньому, минулому чи майбутньому), залежно вщ змюту. В англшськш Moei це можливо лише TOfli, коли д4еслово-присудок головного речения виражае дда стосовно Tenepiumboro або майбутнього часу: I think that it will rain. Я думаю, що будс дощ.

Не understands that he Bjh розум1е, що допустив помилку.

has made a mistake.

Якщо ж присудок головного речения в англшськш mobj виражений д1есловом в одному з минулих 4acie або в Present Perfect, що виражае длю, яка вщбулась у минулому, то в пщрядному додатковому реченш д1еслово-присудок, як правило, мае бути в одному з минулих час1в або в майбутньому з точки зору минулого (Future-in-the-Past).

Якщо в головному реченш flieonoBO-npHcyaoK виражае минулу дш, а тя шдрядного додаткового речения вщбуваеться в той самий перюд часу, що й д1я головного, то в шдрядному реченш вживаеться Past Indefinite або Past Continuous. They knew what they were fighting for. Вони знали, за що борються.

You had not told me where you were going. Ви не сказали меш, куди идете.

В укра'шськш mobj д1еслово додаткового шдрядного речения вживаеться звичайно у тепершньому чась Якщо в головному реченш д1еслово-присудок виражае минулу дш, а дш шдрядного додаткового речения вщбулася ранше до* головного, то в пщрядному реченш вживаеться Past Perfect. На укра'шську мову таю речения перекладаються минулим часом: I thought you had left England. Я думав, що ви залишили Анпйю.

Примггка: Якщо в шдрядному реченш точно зазначено час виконання до, то цю д1ю виражають за допомогою Past Indefinite або Past Continuous: Не said that he finished school in 1994. Bin сказав, що закшчив школу в 1994 рощ.

Якщо в головному реченш д1еслово-присудок виражае минулу дш, а тя шдрядного додаткового речения е майбутньою з точки зору дн головного, то в пщрядному реченш вживаеться Future-in-the-Past:

I knew that you would understand me. Я знав, що ви 3po3yMieTe мене. You have said you would come. Ти казав, що прийдеш.

Якщо шдрядне додаткове речения шдпорядковане не головному, а жшому шдрядному речению, то час д1еслова шдрядного додаткового речения узгоджуеться з часом д1еслова того речения, якому воно безпосередньо шдпорядковане, а не з часом дйеслова головного речения:

Не said that his sister had written him that she worked at a plant. BiH сказав, що його сестра писала йому, що вона працюе на заводь

Д1я другого пщрядного речения (worked) не обов'язково одночасна з Д1ею головного (said), але вона одночасна з тею першого пщрядного речения (had written), а тому в другому пщрядному реченш вживаеться Past Indefinite.

Правило послщовносп час1в не застосовуеться в шдрядних додаткових речениях, яю виражають загальновщом1 факта: Не knew that metals conduct electricity.

^{1H зна}в, що метали проводять електрику. The teacher told that the Earth moves round the sun.

Вчитель сказав, що Земля рухаеться навколо Сонця.

Якщо ц\я шдрядного додаткового речения е одночасною з тею головного речения або майбутньою не лише стосовно минулоУ дй головного речения, а й моменту мовлення, правило послщовност! час1в застосовуеться не завжди. У цьому раз! в шдрядному реченш може вживатися теперщнш або майбутнш час, хоч присудок головного речения й виражае

минулу дпо:

I told you I'm in a hurry. Я сказала вам, що постшаю.

Проте в таких випадках дкслова здебшьшого вживаються вщповщно до правил

послщовност1 чаав.

Appendix 3

ПАСИВНИЙ СТАН Д16СЛОВА (THE PASSIVE VOICE)

Особа або предмет, що виконуе дда, називаеться суб'ектом до. Особа або предмет, на яю спрямовано д1ю, називаеться об'сктом дй. Так, у реченш The girls are planting flowers (Цгвчата садять кв'нпи) the girls означав суб'ект дп, a flowers -ii об'ект. У реченш The tractor pulls a truck (Трактор тягне прицеп) the tractor - суб'ект дп, a truck — об'ект.

Розглянемо укра'шсью речения:

Сонце сховалось за хмарку.

Сонце намальоване жовтою фарбою.

У першому з них сонце - суб'ект дп, а другому - об'ект (не сонце малювало, а його намалювали), алев обох випадках сонце - пщмет речения.

Отже, пщмет речения може бути як суб'ектом, так i об'ектом дн, виражено*

присудком.

В англшськш Moei Д1еслова вживаються в активному сташ (the Active Voice) i п а с и в

ному (the Passive Voice).

Якщо шдметом речения е суб'ект дй, то д1еслово-присудок вживаеться в активному

стан1:

My brother wrote this letter yesterday. Мш брат написав цього листа вчора. Якщо шдметом речения е об'ект дй, то д1еслово-присудок вживаеться в пасивному

сташ:

This letter was written yesterday.

Цей лист був написаний учора.

4acoei форми пасивного стану вживаються за тими самими правилами, що й

вщповщш часи активного стану.

Так, часи групи Indefinite пасивного стану, як i активного, виражають одноразову, повторювану або постшну дно в тепершшьому, минулому або майбутньому 4aci i вживаються для вираження майбутньо!' дй в шдрядних речениях часу та умови :

This museum is visited every day. Цей музей вщвщують щодня.

Iron is attracted by magnet. Зашзо притягуеться магнггом.

I'll go there if I am invited. Я шду туди, якщо мене запросять.

The ball was found in the yard. М'яча знайшли у дворь

Часи групи Continuous пасивного стану, як i активного, виражають тривалу д1ю, що вщбуваеться в якийсь момент або перюд часу в тепершньому чи минулому,

A multi-storeyed house is being built near our school.

Бшя нашо! школи будуеться багатоповерховий будинок.

Часи групи Perfect пасивного стану, як i активного, виражають am, що передуе шпнй дй або якомусь моменту в тепершньому, минулому або майбутньому naci . KpiM цього, перфектш часи, особливо Present Perfect Passive, вживаються для пщкреслення результату

дй, що вщбулася:

The windows have still not been repaired. Вшна ще не вщрсмонтоваш.

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I was thinking of all that had been said. Я думав про все, що було сказано.

Замють Present Perfect Continuous та Past Perfect Continuous, яю не мають форм пасивного стану, вщповщно вживаються Present Perfect i Past Perfect Passive.

The plan has been discussed for two hours. План обговорюеться уже дв> години.

Пасивний стан вживаеться TOfli, коли в цет-pi уваги сшврозмовниюв е о со б а або предмет, на яю спрямована д i я (об'ект дй). Суб'ект дй' при цьому здебшьшого не вказуеться:

Our institute was founded 175 years ago.

Наш шститут був заснований 175 роюв тому.

У цьому реченш institute е об'ектом дй, виражено'1 присудком (його заснували), саме про нього, а не про дшчу особу йде мова.

При noTpe6i суб'ект дй може бути виражений за допомогою додатка з приименником by або with:

They were invited by my friend. Ix запросив мш друг.

Зютавляючи речения The pupils wrote the essay yesterday (Учш писали TBip учора) i The essay was written by the pupils yesterday (Teip був написаний учнями вчора), можна вщзначи-ти що шдмету речения в активному сташ вщповщае додаток з приименником by речения в пасивному сташ, а додаток до д!еслова-присудка речения в активному сташ е шдметом речения в пасивному сташ.

В англшськш Moei д1еслова, яю виражають ддю спрямовану на якусь особу або предмет, i можуть приимати прямий, непрямии i безприйменниковий додаток, називаються перехщними (transitive): to read (a book), to take (a pen), to wait (for somebody), to listen (to music).

Д1елова, яю не приймають додатка i виражають дш, що характеризуе пщмет, але не спрямована на якийсь об'ект, називаються неперехщними (intransitive): to live, to run.

Особливосп вживания речень у пасивному стаю в англшськш Moei В антлшсьюй Moei речения у пасивному сташ вживаються значно часпше, Hi* в укра'шськш, оск4льки в aнглiйcькiй mobj в пасивному CTaHi вживаються не лише перехщш, а й багато неперехщних дiecлiв. П1дметом речения пасивного стану в англшськш Moei може бути прямий, непрямии, а також прийменниковий додаток речения активного стану .

Речению з д1есловом в активному сташ They showed me the room (Вони показали меш юмнату), де the room - прямий додаток, а те - непрямии додаток, вдаовщають два речения пасивного стану The room was shown to me i I was shown the room (Mem показали юмнату). У першому з них пщмет вщповщае прямому додатку речения активного стану, а в другому -непрямому.

The copy had been given to her father. Кошю дали i'i батьковь

У цьому реченш пщмет (the copy) вщповщае прямому додатку речения активного стану They had given the copy to her father.

They were given new books. 1м дали hobj книжки.

Тут пщмет вщповщае непрямому додатку речения з д1есловом в активному сташ We gave them new books.

У реченш We spoke about him (Ми говорили про нього) about him - прийменниковий Додаток, якому також може вщповщати пщмет речения в пасивному станк Не was spoken about (Про нього говорили).

Переклад речень з дксловом у пасивному сташ

На украшську мову д1еслова в пасивному сташ перекладаються: а) д1есловом з часткою -ся (-сь):

His voice was heard at the door. Бшя дверей почувся його голос. б)сполученням fliecnoea бути з д1еошвними формами на -но,-то в безособових Речениях:

1

That house was built last year. Той будинок було збудовано торк.

в) сполученням Д1еслова бути з д1еприкметником пасивного стану минулого часу: Where did you get the copies which were found in your room?

Де ви д1стали Ti прикпрники, яи були знайдет у вашш юмнат1?

г) д1есловом в активному cram в неозначено-особових речениях: She had not been seen. К не бачили.

This fellow is very much spoken about.Ilpo цього хлопця багато говорять.

д) якщо в реченш з д1есловом у пасивному стаж вказано суб'ект даТ, його можна перекласти украшською мовою особовим речениям з д1есловом в активному стащ:

They were invited by my friend. Ix запросив мш друг.

Appendix 4 СПОСОБИ Д1€СЛОВА (MOODS)

В англшськш MOBi, як i в укра'шськш, е три способи д1еслова: дшсний (the Indicative Mood), умовний (the Subjunctive Mood) i наказовий (the Imperative Mood).

Дшсний cnoci6 виражае am як реальний факт у тепершньому, минулому i майбутньому 4aci:

She lives with her mother. Вона живе з мат1р'ю.

A letter came from them today.Cboroflm вщ них прийшов лист.

I shall go into the garden. Я ищу в сад.

Умовний cnoci6 виражае д1ю не як реальну, а як таку, що могла б вщбутися за певних умов, а також нсобхщну,бажану або нереальну, нездшененну:

Oh, if I had but come last night. О, якби я тшьки прийшла вчора yBe4epi.

В анппйськш Moei вживаються чотири форми умовного способу: the Conditional Mood, the Suppositional Mood, Subjunctive I, Subjunctive II.

THE CONDITIONAL MOOD

Conditional Mood утворюеться з допом1жних fliecnie should i would та шфшггива основного д1еслова без частки to. У першш oco6i вживаеться should або would, у другш i

третш особах - would.

Отже, Conditional Mood за формою збпаеться з Future-in-the-Past дшеного способу,

але вщр1зняеться вщ нього за значениям.

Future-in-the-Past вживаеться для вираження реально! дп, що була майбутньою

стосовно минулого:

I knew something would happen today. Я знав, що сьогодш щось трапиться.

Conditional Mood вживаеться для вираження дп, яка вщбулася б за певних умов у TenepiuiHbOMy, минулому або майбутньому 4aci, але не вщбудеться з якихось причин:

I should call on him but I have very little time.

Я б зайшов до нього, але у мене дуже мало часу.

Conditional Mood мае дв1 4acoBi форми: present i past.

Present Conditional утворюеться з допом1жних ддеапв should i would та шфшггива основного д1еслова без частки to, тобто за формою зб1гаеться з Future Indefinite-in-the- Past:

I (we) should/would work.

He (she, it, you, they) would work.

Present Conditional виражае fliio, що за певних умов могла б вщбутися в тепершньому

або майбутньому 4aci:

But for the rain we would work in the garden today.

Якби не дощ, ми працювали б сьогодш в саду.

I'd buy the watch tomorrow but the shop will be closed.

Я купив би годинник завтра, але магазин буде зачинений.

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Past Conditional утворюеться з допом1жних fliecnie should/would та перфектно"1 форми - «Ынтгива основного д1еслова, тобто за формою зб1гаеться з Future Perfect-in-the-Past: I (we) should/would have worked. He (she, it, you, they) would have worked.

Примггка: Перфектна форма шфштива (Perfect Infinitive) утворюеться з шфшггива пом1жного д1еслова to have та flienpHKMCTHHKa минулого часу основного flie^oea: to have

Past Conditional виражае а\ю, яка за певних умов могла б вщбутися в минулому, але через вщеутнкть цих умов не вщбулася:

She would have bought a watch but the shop was closed. Вона купила б годинник, але магазин був зачинений.

SUBJUNCTIVE II

Subjunctive II мае дв1 часов1 форми: present i past.

Present Subjunctive II за формою збцаеться з Past Indefinite дшеного способу.

Винятком е д1еслово to be, яке в Present Subjunctive II мае форму were в ycix особах однини й множини:

I (he, she, it, we, you, they) were.

Present Subjunctive II виражае нереальну fliio, що суперечить дшеносп i вщноситься переважно до тепершнього або майбутнього часу:

If I saw him tomorrow I should tell him about it.

Якби я побачив його завтра, я б сказав йому про це (у мене мало надп побачити його завтра).

If she learned English, I'd buy her this book.

Якби вона вивчала (зараз) англшську мову, я купила б ш цю книжку (а вона вивчае французьку мову).

Past Subjunctive II за формою зб1гаеться з Past Perfect дшеного способу:

I (he, she, it, we, you, they) had worked.

Past Subjunctive II виражае нереальну д1ю в минулому.

If I had met her I would have told her about it.

Якби я зустр1в i"i, я сказав би Уй про це (зустр1ч не вгдбулася).

ВЖИВАННЯ CONDITIONAL MOOD I SUBJUNCTIVE II

Conditional Mood вживаеться в простих, складносурядних i складношдрядних речениях для вираження дн, яка могла б вщбутися за певних у мов. Щ умови можуть бути виражеш у цьому реченш або в сусщшх, а можуть бути не виражеш взагаш, але вони зрозумш з ycie'i ситуаци.

But for the late hour they would stay here longer.

Якби не шзнш час, вони побуди б тут довше. (Умова виражена в цьому реченш - якби не тзнт час.)

It's a pity I have no time. We would play chess.

Шкода, що я не маю часу. Ми згграли б у шахи. (Умова зрозумша з попереднього речения - якби я мае час.)

Conditional Mood i Subjunctive II вживаються в складношдрядних речениях з ^п'Дрядним умовним, якщо умова малоймов1рна або нездшененна. В головному рсченш вживаеться Conditional, а в пщрядному — Subjunctive II.

Кожна з цих форм вживаеться в тому 4aci, який вимагаеться за змютом.

Якщо дп головного i пщрядного речень вщбуваються в тепер1шньому або Майбутньому 4aci, то в пщрядному умовному реченш (умова) вживаеться Present Subjunctive «, а в головному (наслщок) - Present Conditional.

Якщо дп головного i пщрядного речень вщбуваються в минулому 4aci, то в

шдрядному умовному речент вживаеться Past Subjunctive II, а в головному - Past

Conditional:

If I were you I wouldn't think of it. На вашому мкщ я 6 не думав про це. (Дп головного i

шдрядного речень вщбуваються в тепершньому чась)

If you had stayed, I would never have come to you.

Якби ви залишились, я б школи не прийшов до вас. (Дп головного i шдрядного речень вщбуваються в минулому чась)

Subjunctive II вживаеться в простих речениях для вираження бажано'1 дп або стану, що

суперечить дшсносп:

If only he looked different! Якби тшьки вш виглядав iHaKuie!

If only it could always be the spring! Якби завжди була (могла бути) весна!

If you had been there, I should have seen you.

Якби ви були там, я б побачив вас.

Subjunctive II вживаеться в тдрядних додаткових речениях, якщо присудок головного речения виражений д^есловом to wish. У цьому випадку Subjunctive II виражае бажану дто або стан, що суперечить дшсность

Якщо д1я шдрядного речения вщбуваеться одночасно з flieio головного, в подрядному речент вживаеться Present Subjunctive II, а якщо Д1я шдрядного передуе дп головного, то в шдрядному реченш вживаеться Past Subjunctive И:

I wish I were only joking. Добре було б, коли б я лише жартував.

I wish I had not told you about it. Шкода, що я розпов1в вам про це.

Примака: Якщо д1я шдрядного речения е майбутньою стосовно дп головного, воно виражае бажання, здшенення якого малоймов1рне. У цьому pa3i в шдрядному реченш вживаються сполучення would або could з шфшггивом:

I wish she would come home. Добре було б, коли б вона прийшла додому.

I wish you could give it to me. Mem хотшося б, щоб ти дав його мень

Subjunctive II вживаеться в тдрядних речениях, що приеднуються до головного речения сполучниками as if, as though наче, тби.

Якщо д1я шдрядного речення одночасна з д1ею головного, то в пщрядному реченш

вживаеться Present Subjunctive И:

They spoke before her as if she were not there.

Вони розмовляли при нш, наче ii' там i не було.

You just go out as though you were going for a walk.

Ви просто виходьте, шби идете на прогулянку.

Якщо Д1Я шдрядного речення п е р е д у е fli'i головного, то в пщрядному реченш вживаеться Past Subjunctive II:

Не looked as if he had never seen me before.

Здавалося, наче вш мене школи не бачив ранпне.

Примака. Якщо дiя подрядного речення з сполучником as if, as though e майбутньою стосовно дп головного, то в пщрядному реченш вживаеться сполучення would з шфшггивом.

The sky looked as if it would never clear before morning.

Небо було таким, наче воно до ранку не проясниться.

SUBJUNCTIVE I

Subjunctive I мае тшьки одну форму для ecix oci6 однини i множини, яка у ecix д1есловах, у тому чист to be i to have, зб1гаеться з шфшггивом без частки to.

У пасивному сташ Subjunctive I мае форму be + Past Participle: I (he, she, it, we, you,

they) be examined.

Subjunctive I вживаеться для вираження необхщноУ, бажаноУ дп, яка може вщбутись: It is necessary that he go there at once. Необхщно, щоб вш негайно шшов туди. Subjunctive I не мае часових форм — та сама форма може вживатись вщносно

106

_nepjuiHboro, минулого i майбутнього часу:

Не demands (demanded, will demand) that we be attentive. Bih вимагае (вимагав, вимагатиме), щоб ми були уважш.

THE SUPPOSITIONAL MOOD

Suppositional Mood утворюеться з дoпoмiжнoгo д1еслова should (у ecix особах) та шфшггива основного fliecnoea без частки to.

Suppositional Mood мае дв1 nacoei форми: present i past.

Present Suppositional утворюеться з допом1жного д1еслова should та шфшггива основного fliecnoBa:

I (he, she, it, we, you, they) should work. Past Suppositional утворюеться з допом1жного д1еслова should та перфектно'1 форми шфшггива основного д1еслова:

I (he, she, it, we, you, they) should have gone.

ВЖИВАНИЯ SUPPOSITIONAL MOOD I SUBJUNCTIVE I

Suppositional Mood вживаеться для вираження сумшвно'1, але необхщно'1, бажано! р\\, що не суперечить дшсносп i мае вщбутися зпдно чииогось прохання, розпорядження, наказу

iT.n.:

It is necessary that he should go there at once.

Необхщно, щоб вш негайно по'гхав туди.

I insist that you should consult a doctor.

Я наполягаю, щоб ви проконсультувалися у лшаря.

У цих значениях вживаеться також Subjunctive I, але Suppositional Mood i Subjunctive I не однаково поширеш в mobL В англшськш Moei Великобританп переважно вживаеться Suppositional Mood. Subjunctive I трапляеться лише в Moei офщшних документе (договор1в, угод тощо), в науковш i техшчнш лнератур^ а також у поезп. В американському BapiaHii англшськоУ мови Subjunctive I вживаеться чаепше.

Suppositional Mood, як i Subjunctive I, вживаеться в шдрядних пщметових речениях, яш вводяться зворотом i3 займенником it: it is necessary необхгдно; it is important вао/сливо; it is desirable бажано; It is ordered наказано; it is demanded вимагаеться; it is recommended рекомендуешься та ш.:

It is necessary that he should pay us a visit.

Необхщно, щоб вш вщвщав нас.

It was extremely important that he remain at school.

Було надзвичайно важливо, щоб вш залишився в школь

Suppositional Mood, як i Subjunctive I, вживаеться в шдрядних додаткових речениях, якщо д1еслово-присудок головного речення означае наказ, прохання, вимогу, пропозищю, пораду тощо: to order наказувати; to suggest пропонувати; to propose пропонувати; to demand вимагати; to request npocumu, to advisepadumu; to recommendрекомендувати та т.:

He only demanded that the man should leave the country at once.

BiH лише вимагав, щоб цейчоловш негайно покинув крашу.

Harris proposed that we should have eggs for breakfast.

Tappic запропонував взяти на енщанок яйця.

Suppositional Mood (зрщка Subjunctive I) вживаеться в тдрядних речениях, яю вводяться сполучником lest щоб не:

Магу dreaded lest he should come in. Mepi боялася, щоб BiH не вв1йшов.

Suppositional Mood вживаеться в шдрядних умовних речениях, що стосуються ^аибутнього часу, для шдкреслення мало1 HMOBipHOcri припущення:

If you should meet her somewhere, you might travel with her.

Якби ти випадково зустр1в и де-небудь, ти Mir би по'гхати з нею.

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD (НАКАЗОВИЙ СПОС1Б)

Наказовий cnoci6 в англшськш mobi, як i в украшськга, виражае спонукання до дп, тобто прохання, наказ, пораду, запрошення, застереження тощо.

На вщмшу вщ украТнськоУ мови, де наказовий cnoci6 у друпй oco6i однини й множини мае pi3Hi закшчення (читай - читайте), в англшсьюй mobi e лише одна форма наказового способу, яка зб1гаеться з шфшггивом, без частки to:

to take - Take! В1зьми! В1зьмпъ!

Bring me this book. Принеси мет цю книжку.

Be a good boy. Будь хорошим хлопчиком.

Заперечна форма наказового способу утворюеться з допом1жного д1еслова to do, заперечно!' частки not та шфшггива основного д1еслова без to. В усному мовленш зам1сть do not звичайно вживаеться скорочсна форма don't:

Don't go to the theatre today. Don't be angry.

He иди сьогодш в театр. Не сердься.

Допом1жне д1еслово do може вживатися i у стверджувалынй форМ1 наказового способу для пщсилення прохання. У цьому раз1 воно ставиться перед смисловим д1есловом:

Do tell me about it. Розкажпъ же мет про це.

У першш i третш oco6i однини й множини спонукання до дп виражаеться сполученням д1еслова let з шфшггивом основного д1еслова без частки to. М1ж д!есловом let та шфшггивом ставиться 1менник у загальному вщмшку або особовий займенник в об'ектному вщмшку, що позначае особу, яка мае виконати дно:

Let us go to the theatre. Ход1мо в театр.

Let them go. Нехай вони йдуть.

Let the man listen to what I say. Хай цей чоловж слухае, що я кажу.