Further studies, which take these variables into account, will need to be undertaken.

Further work is required to establish this.

In future investigations it might be possible to use a different X in which......

This is an important issue for future research.

PRACTICE IN WRITING YOUR PAPER

TASK 5.15. Following the procedure you have learned in this unit write your own results and discussion section of your research paper where you have to present findings that you have collected and to comment on them.

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1.What is the purpose of the results and discussion section?

2.How can information be presented in this section?

3.What are tables most useful for?

4.What are figure most useful for?

5.What are information elements of the text in the results and discussion section?

6.What are the main functions of comments?

7.What verb tenses are conventionally used to locate findings in the results and discussion section?

8.What verb tenses are conventionally used to present findings?

9.What verb tenses do we choose to comment on the results?

U n i t 6. CONCLUSION

THE AIMS OF THIS UNIT:

to make you think about the importance of the conclusion

to provide insight into typical kinds of information elements in the conclusion section

to analyse language features of the conclusion

to practise in writing the conclusion section of your own.

STARTING POINT

Conclusion is the second most important part of the research paper. This is where you sum it all up. This is the punch line and it needs to be good!

Whereas the "Results and Discussion" section has discussed the results individually, the "Conclusion" section discusses the results in the context of

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the entire experiment. The conclusion is a statement made after looking at the hypothesis, and the data, and determining what would be an appropriate explanation for the outcome of the experiment. The conclusion will include your results, any relationships that you have discovered. In your conclusion you will explain how accurate your results are and explain any discrepancies. This is where you make your audience believe that you understand.

FOCUS ON STRUCTURING INFORMATION

This section of the report has two parts:

1.It summarizes the main findings and results. This part is also for busy readers who don't have time to read all of your findings, and for readers who want to read an overview of the findings before deciding whether to read the findings in detail.

2.It draws a main conclusion and links to the recommendations (sometimes present)

TASK 6.1. Read the example of “Conclusion” section taken from the research report in the field of Chemical Engineering. Pay attention to the information elements presented in the section.

What is the main outcome?

What are the recommendations?

Cost assessment of purchasing a new tower or repacking an existing one shows that the two options do not differ too greatly in price. The main discrepancy between the costs arises from the difference in down time of the plant. Purchase is more expensive in the short term, but the ‘down time’ factor makes it cheaper in the long run.

Considering that in the next few years the tower will need to be replaced it is recommended that a new tower is purchased.

TASK 6.2. Read the conclusion below and choose the right answer to the question.

Conclusion

Two different correlations, Bell’s and Kern’s, were compared in estimating the overall heat transfer coefficients. It has been shown that there are a variety of factors which affect the performance of the shell and tube heat exchanger, and that relationships exist between them. The deviation of results obtained have been attributed to various assumptions and approximations made through the calculations, coupled with suspect results from the rig itself.

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Question:

What was the main outcome?

1) a variety of factors affect the performance of the shell and heat exchanger;

2) Bell’s and Kern’s correlations were compared in est imating the overall heat transfer;

3)the writer hasn’t told us;

4)the results deviated.

FOCUS ON LANGUAGE USE

CHOOSING VERB TENSES FOR CONCLUSIONS

TASK 6.3 . Read the following Conclusion section and identify which verb tense/verb forms are represented by the underlined words in each sentence. What verb tenses are used to summarize findings?

A METHOD FOR EVALUATION OF THE COMPONENT UNIFORMITY OF A POWDER MIXTURE BY MICRO FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROMETRY1

Conclusions

Evaluation of the uniformity of the components of four kinds of zirconia and silica powder mixture (three kinds of mixture were mixed by mechanical procedures and one kind of mixture was mixed by chemical procedure) was attempted using micro-FTIR reflectance spectrometry , which is one of the local analysis methods. The following results were obtained:

(1)The evaluation of uniformity on small domains from 10-3 to 10-5 mm3 is possible by using micro-FTIR reflectance spectrometry,

(2)The uniformity level can be described as ‘least volume (regarded as uniform)’. When the amount of collected sample is greater than this volume, the component ratio in the whole mixture is considered to be the same as that of the collected sample.

Compare your answer with the point below.

Generally uses past tense to summarize the Findings, but you can use present tense or the present perfect if you think that the Findings are still true now.

Example: The effects of three vibrational modes (twist, vertical and horizontal) on flow patterns were experimentally obtained. The vibrational mode affected umf, void fraction of the bed and whole bed motion.

In our present work, the crystallization of Al85Ni10Ce5, Al83Ni10Ce7, Al83Ni10Ce5Si2, Al87Ni7Nd6 and Al87Ni5Co2Nd6 metallic glasses have been intensively studied. It is found that the amount of MRO has an important effect on the crystallization behavior.

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TASK 6.4. Put the verb into the correct form, active or passive in the conclusion section below.

DISTINCT ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE BULK CRUSING OF α-LACTOSE MONOHYDRATE2

Conclusions

The relationship between single particle breakage characteristics and bulk crushing behavior of small crystals of a-lactose monohydrate supplied by DMV (The Netherlands) (analyze) using the DEM. The predictions (show) that a small increase in the SCS resulting from decreasing the temperature, (decrease) the extent of breakage significantly. A reasonable agreement with the experimental data (obtain) for the simulations of the ambient temperature case, whilst there (be) some differences for that at — 20 °C. However, the predictions (improve) by considering an increase in the value of Young's modulus resulting from a decrease in the temperature. The methodology developed here (enable) the prediction of the bulk crushing behavior based on testing a few particles, a feature which (be) of great interest in pharmaceutical powder processing.

TASK 6.5. Match the words in the boxes on the left with the words on the right.

1) solve	a) a research
2) hold	b) changes
3) make	c) problems
4) draw	d) a meeting
5) gather	e) survey
6) suggest	f) data
7) administer	g) an experiment
8) conduct	h) a questionnaire
9) undertake	i) recommendations
10) run	g) conclusions

VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR AID

Summarising the content

This paper has given an account of and the reasons for the widespread use

of X......

This essay has argued that X is the best instrument to ......

This assignment has explained the central importance of X in Y.

This dissertation has investigated ......

Restatement of aims (research)

This study set out to determine ......

The present study was designed to determine the effect of .......

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In this investigation, the aim was to assess ......

The purpose of the current study was to determine .....

This project was undertaken to design ...... and evaluate .....

Returning to the hypothesis/question posed at the beginning of this study,

it is now possible to state that .....

Summarising the findings (research)

This study has shown that ......

These findings suggest that in general ......

One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that .....

It was also shown that......

This study has found that generally .......

The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study ......

The relevance of X is clearly supported by the current findings.

This study/research has shown that ......

The second major finding was that ........

The results of this investigation show that .......

The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that ......

X, Y and Z emerged as reliable predictors of ......

Multiple regression analysis revealed that the ......

Significance of the findings (research contribution)

The X that we have identified therefore assists in our understanding of

the role of ......

These findings enhance our understanding of ......

This research will serve as a base for future studies and ......

The current findings add substantially to our understanding of ......

The current findings add to a growing body of literature on ......

The study has gone some way towards enhancing our understanding of ....

The methods used for this X may be applied to other Xs elsewhere in the

world.

The present study, however, makes several noteworthy contributions to....

The empirical findings in this study provide a new understanding of ……

The findings from this study make several contributions to the current

literature. First,……

The present study provides additional evidence with respect to ……

Taken together, these findings suggest a role for X in promoting Y.

The present study confirms previous findings and contributes additional

evidence that suggests .... .

Whilst this study did not confirm X, it did partially substantiate .......

Recommendations for further work (research)

This research has thrown up many questions in need of further investigation.

Further work needs to be done to establish whether ......

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It is recommended that further research be undertaken in the following

areas:

Further experimental investigations are needed to estimate ......

What is now needed is a cross-national study involving ......

More broadly, research is also needed to determine .....

It is suggested that the association of these factors is investigated in

future studies.

Further research might explore/investigate ......

Further research in this field/regarding the role of X would be of great

help in .......

Further investigation and experimentation into X is strongly

recommended.

A number of possible future studies using the same experimental set up

are apparent.

It would be interesting to assess the effects of ......

More information on X would help us to establish a greater degree of

accuracy on this matter.

If the debate is to be moved forward, a better understanding of ...... needs

to be developed.

I suggest that before X is introduced, a study similar to this one should be

carried out on .....

These findings provide the following insights for future research: .....

Considerably more work will need to be done to determine ......

Future trials should assess a full selective decontamination regimen

including

More research is needed to better understand when implementation ends

and .......

It would be interesting to compare experiences of individuals within the

same … group.

A further study could assess …...

A future study investigating …... would be very int eresting.

The issue of X is an intriguing one which could be usefully explored in

further research.

Future research should therefore concentrate on the investigation of …...

PRACTICE WRITING YOUR PAPER

TASK 6.6. Following the procedure you have learned in this unit, write a conclusion to your own experimental research paper.

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1.What two parts does the conclusion section consist of?

2.Why is the conclusion section so important?

3.What verb tenses are used to summarize findings?

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Chapter 3

SUPPORTING SECTIONS OF AN EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCH PAPER

U n i t 7. REFERENCES

THE AIMS OF THIS UNIT

to make you think what referencing is;

to inform on the purposes of references;

to provide information on two types of referencing:

to explain the difference between list of references and bibliography;

to get you acquainted with Harvard system of referencing;

to practise in formatting references.

STARTING POINT

When you write a research paper, you may be required to refer to the works of other authors. Each time you do so, it is necessary to identify their work by making reference to it—both in the text of your paper and in a list at the end of your paper. This practice of acknowledging authors is known as referencing.

A reference is required if you:

∙quote (use someone else’s exact words);

∙copy (use figures, tables or structure);

∙paraphrase (convert someone else’s ideas into your own words);

∙summarise (use a brief account of someone else’s ideas).

The purposes of references are:

∙to indicate that you have consulted others’ work and are aware of the debate, arguments and practices in your field, part icularly as they relate to the subject of your own research;

∙to add weight and credibility to your statements;

∙to enable others to check the accuracy of your information and interpretations;

∙to direct others to works you have found useful and to related publications;

∙to acknowledge other people’s work and ideas;

∙to enable you and your readers to review the sources of your information;

∙to show that you are familiar with academic formatting conventions. There are a number of different referencing systems used in academic

writing. Most scientific journals acknowledge author-date systems commonly known as Harvard and APA (American Psychological Association)

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There are two parts of the author-date system of referencing.

∙in-text references – the author and the date are referred to in the t ext of the paper;

∙list of references – all of the resources referred to in a paper are presented at the end of the paper.

There is some difference between a reference list and a bibliography. The reference list only identifies sources referred to (cited) in the text of your paper. A bibliography includes all material consulted in the preparation of your paper. In other words, a bibliography presents the same items as a reference list but it also includes all other sources which you read or consulted but did not cite.

FOCUS ON STRUCTURING INFORMATION

A complete and well laid list of references is an important factor in how positively your paper is evaluated by your peers.

The following examples show how referencing conventions are applied according to their sources:

Books

Personal authors

Clark, A. (2000) Organisations, competition and the business environment. London: Pearson.

Brown, G. and Atkins, W. (1990) Effective teaching. London: Routledge. Coffield, F., Borrill, C. and Marshall, S. (1986) Growing up at the margins: young adults in the North East. Milton Keynes: Open University

Press.

Peters, G. (1990, 2nd edn) Real-time processing. London: Routledge.

Edited volumes

Day, R. editor. (1986) Talking to learn: conversation in second language acquisition. Rowley: Newbury House.

Organization as author

British Medical Association. (1993) Complementary medicine: the BMA guide to good practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chapter in a book

Pilfer, M. (1994) ‘Quality assurance in higher education’, in B. Wilkins (ed.) Issues in Higher Education. London: Falmer Press, pp. 77–92.

Theses or dissertations

Murray, N. (1996) Communicative Language Teaching and Language Teacher Education. Ph.D. thesis. University of London.

Official publications

Department of Health (1998) 1996 Report of the Committees on Toxicity, Mutagenicity, Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment. London: HMSO.

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Articles in journals

Peters, M. (1992) Performance and Accountability in Post-Industrial Society: the crisis of British Universities. Studies in Higher Education 17 (2) 123–40.

The first number (17) is the volume number and the second number (2) is the part number (where available). The final numbers (123–40) are the page numbers of the article.

The conventions for joint (two) or multiple (more than two) authorship of articles are the same as those used for books.

Electronic sources

When citing internet sources, you should include:

∙the author’s name (if known);

∙the full title of the document;

∙the www homepage (if available);

∙the author’s email address (if available);

∙the date of publication;

∙pathway directions for accessing the document;

∙the date you accessed the information. Example:

Simons, Peter (2001) ‘Audience Participation’. The atre Reviews.

http://www.bigbrother.terracom/frames_news.html (15 Oct. 2001)

Remember:

∙ Each publication should include the following elements in the order they are presented here:

–author(s) surname(s) plus initial(s);

–date of publication;

–title of book (or title of book in which the wor k appears if it is a chapter);

–title of journal (if a journal article);

–volume/edition/page numbers (if a journal articl e);

–place of publication and name of publisher (if a book).

TASK 7.1. Below is a list of references which have not been formatted.

Using the guide-lines already outlined, format them correctly.

Authors: John Bender, David Wellbery (editors)

Date: 1990

Title: The ends of rhetoric: history, theory, practice

Publisher: Stanford, California: Stanford University Press

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Authors: Dan Sperber, Deirdre Wilson Date: 1982

Title: Mutual knowledge and relevance theories of comprehension Source: Mutual Knowledge (N. Smith, editor)

Publisher: London: Academic Press

Author: Howard Felperin

Date: 1985

Title: Beyond deconstruction

Publisher: Oxford: Clarendon Press

Author: Laurence Tribe

Date: 1971

Title: Trial by mathematics

Publisher: Harvard Law Review 84: 1329–1393

Author: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Date: 2006

Title: Animal Health 2006

Publisher: London, HMSO (Report of Chief Veterinary Officer)

Author: Henry G. Widdowson

Date: 1979

Title: Explorations in applied linguistics

Publisher: Oxford: Oxford University Press

Author: Marga Firle Date: 1990

Title: The relationship between poetic and verbal communication Publisher: Poetics: Journal for Empirical Research on Literature, the

Media and the Arts. Volume 19, Nos 5–6: 423–431

Author(s): BBC NEWS On-line Date: November 3, 2006

Title: How we are being watched

Publisher: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6110866.stm

Authors: G L Nelson, M Al-Batal, E Echols Date: 1996

Title: Arabic and English compliment responses: potential for pragmatic failure

Publisher: Applied Linguistics 18/3: 411–433

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TASK 7.2. There are a number of errors in the list of references below. These may be to do with the order of items or the omission of some details. Mark the places where the errors occur and then write a description of the error and what is needed to correct it.

1.Adair, J. (1988) Effective time management: How to save time and spend it wisely. Pan Books: London.

2.McCarthy, P. and Hatcher, C. Speaking persuasively: Making the most of your presentations, Sydney: Allen and Unwin (1996).

3.Fisher, R., W. Ury, and Patton, B. (1991) Getting to yes: Negotiating an agreement without giving in, 2nd edition, London: Century Business.

4.Barnes, R. Successful study for degrees, 2nd edition, 1995. London: Routledge.

5.Napier, A. (1993) Fatal storm, Allen and Unwin: Sydney.

6.Danaher, P. (1998) (ed.) Beyond the ferris wheel, Rockhampton: CQU

Press.

7.Muller, V. (1994) ‘Trapped in the body: Transsexualism, the law, sexual identity’, The Australian Feminist Law Journal, no. 2, vol. 3, August, pp. 103 – 107.

FOCUS ON LANGUAGE USE

There are two ways of in-text referencing: author prominent and information prominent.

Author prominent referencing

This way gives prominence to the author by using the author’s surname (family name) as part of your sentence with the date and the page number in parentheses (round brackets).

Direct quote example:

Cowie (1996, p. 91) argues that ‘socialism rejected the liberal ideals of individualism and competition’.

Paraphrase example:

Cowie (1996) suggests that unlike capitalism, socialism promotes the good of the whole before the good of the individual.

Information prominent referencing

The other way of citing references gives prominence to the information, with all the required referencing details in parentheses at the end of the citation.

Direct quote example:

It has been argued that ‘socialism rejected the liberal ideals of individualism and competition’ (Cowie 1996, p. 91).

Paraphrase example:

Unlike capitalism, socialism promotes the good of the whole before the good of the individual (Cowie 1996).

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VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR AID

Verbs that help with author-prominent referencing state point out describe

remark add suggest maintain assert affirm agree claim clarify disagree contest contend highlight find show imply theorise offer predict question dispute justify confirm reason

KEY to TASK 7.1

BBC NEWS On-line (2006) How we are being watched. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6110866.stm (3 Nov. 2006).

Bender, J. and Wellbery, D. (eds) (1990) The ends of rhetoric: history, theory, practice. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2006) Animal Health 2006. London, HMSO (Report of Chief Veterinary Officer).

Felperin, H. (1985) Beyond deconstruction. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Firle, M. 1990 The relationship between poetic and verbal communication. Poetics: Journal for Empirical Research on Literature, the Media and the Arts. Volume 19 (5–6): 423–431.

Nelson, G.L. Al-Batal, M. and Echols, E. (1996) Arabic and English compliment responses: potential for pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics 18 (3): 411–433.

Sperber, D. and Wilson, D. 1982 ‘Mutual knowledge and relevance theories of com-prehension’, in N. Smith (ed.) Mutual Knowledge. London: Academic Press.

Tribe, L. (1971) Trial by mathematics. Harvard Law Review 84: 1329 – 1393.

Widdowson, H.G. (1979) Explorations in applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1.What is referencing and why is it required?

2.What is the basic principle of Harvard system of references?

3.What is the difference between list of references and bibliography?

4.What are two types of in-text referencing?

5.What is the required format for referencing books, articles in journals and electronic resources?

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Chapter 4

USEFUL TIPS FROM SCIENTIFIC STYLE

SPECIALISTS

1. LEARN MORE ABOUT THE STRUCTURE

Headings/Subheadings: The Skeleton of Your Paper

Purpose of the structure for the reader

1.It makes navigation easy by providing direct access to parts of the

paper.

2.It helps the reader locate the section of the paper related to the author’s contribution.

3.It allows the reader to quickly grasp the main story of the paper by making a logical story out of the succession of heading s and subheadings.

4.It sets reading time expectations through the length and detail level of each section.

Purpose of the structure for the writer

1.It reinforces the contribution by repeating key points or achievements in the headings or subheadings.

2.It helps the writer divide the paper into informative sections that support the contribution (Some writers use structure as a framework for writing They create the structure, and then write. This method has value. It gives focus to the paper. If the story flows well at the structural level, then it will probably flow well at the detailed level as wel l. You may still change the structure as you write, but it will mostly be to refine the headings or to create more subheadings, not to totally restructure the flo w of your paper.

Qualities of a structure

A structure is INFORMATIVE. No empty signposts are found outside of the expected standard headings. The contribution is clearly identified in the nonstandard headings.

A structure is TIED TO TITLE AND ABSTRACT. Keywords from the title and abstract are found in the structure. They support the contribution.

A structure is LOGICAL. Between headings, and within each heading, the reader sees the logic of the order chosen by the writer.

A structure is CONSISTENT at the syntax level. Each parent heading has more than one child subheading . Syntax is parallel.

A structure is CONCISE. Neither overly detailed nor too condensed, the structure helps the reader discover the essential. (Lebrun 2007, pp. 138–139).

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2. LEARN MORE ABOUT TITLES

“When I think about the title of a paper, quite nat urally, the metaphor of a face comes to mind. So many features of a title resemble those of a face.

First among them is what people call the “first imp ression”: it is your face people look at to get a first impression of you. Likewise, a title contains the first words the readers will see. It will give them a first impression of how well your paper meets their needs and whether or not it is worth reading. Your face sets expectations as to the type of person you are. Your title will also reveal what kind of paper you have written, its breadth, and its depth. Your face is unique and memorable. It is found on your passport and various official documents. Your unique title will be found in references and databases. What makes your face unique is the way its features are assembled harmoniously.

What makes your title unique is the way its keywords are assembled to differentiate your work from the work of others” (L ebrun 2007, p. 103).

“Students must learn how to write, because science demands written expression. The goal of scientific research is publication. The scientist must not only “do” science, he must “write” science. A p oorly prepared manuscript is, almost without fail, the carrier vehicle of poor science. Scientists become known (or remain unknown), by their publications.

A scientific paper is primarily an exercise in organization, with distinctive and clearly evident component parts. Good organization is the key to good writing. If the ingredients are properly organized, the paper will virtually write itself. Footnotes are disruptive to readers, making papers more difficult to read quickly with comprehension. Avoidance of footnotes is encouraged for most kinds of writing, and it is strongly encouraged for the writing of scientific papers.

Pay particular attention to those aspects of editorial style which tend to vary widely from journal to journal, such as the style of literature citation. In addition to organization, the second principal ingredient of a scientific paper should be appropriate language within that organization.

The best English is that which gives the sense in the fewest short words. What is a good title? Here is my definition: the title should be the fewest possible words that adequately describe the content of the paper. An improperly titled paper may be virtually lost and never reach the audience for which it was intended. An overly long title is often less meaningful than a short title. In scientific writing generally , and especially in titles, a good rule is: use the specific word, the familiar word, the short word. The title of a paper is a “label” , it is not a sentence, and the order of the words becomes very important.” (Day 2006, pp. 4 – 62).

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Less time than you think

‘Have you ever considered how readers access your title and read it? I do not mean to be a killjoy, but your title is not read: it is scanned, within 2 seconds at the most. Appalling, isn’t it! You spend 9 months researching and 2 full weeks writing the paper, but readers will decide whether to read your paper or not in a second or two! If you do not generate interest in that extremely short time, forget about being read, forget about citations, and forget about making an impact on science. Your title is usually one of many titles retrieved by the search engine and presented in list form. It may be anywhere on the list. Reading a list is not like reading text in the context of a paragraph. Each item on the list stands alone, without context. The only thing you know is that every title on the list contains one or several of your search keywords. What does one have time to do in 2 seconds? Word spotting, mostly. You will pay more attention to the words that surround the search keywords. The rest of the title will be glided over. A short title is better than a long one, but an easily understood long title is better than a short title whose nouns need unpacking to be understood. You need to impress. To do that, you have less than 2 seconds of the reader’s time!’ (Lebrun 2007, p.108)

Purpose of the title for the reader

1.It helps the reader decide whether the paper is worth reading further.

2.It gives the reader a first idea of the contribution: a new method, chemical, reaction, application, preparation, compound, mechanism, process, algorithm, or system.

3.It provides clues on the type of paper (review paper or introductory paper), its specificity (narrower broad), its theoretical level, and its nature (simulation or experimental). By the same means, it helps the reader assess the knowledge depth required to benefit from the paper.

Purpose of the title for the writer

1.It allows the writer to place enough keywords for search engines to find the title.

2.It catches the attention of the reader.

3.It states the contribution in a concise manner.

4.It differentiates the title from other titles.

Qualities of a title

Now that you know the purpose of a title, you are in a better position to write one that serves both you and the reader. Once written, how will you evaluate the title quality? Here are a few adjectives to help you.

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A title is UNIQUE. It differentiates your title from all others (present or future).

A title is LASTING. Try not to use new in it. A title may outlive you. Ask Darwin!

A title is CONCISE. Some keywords are overly detailed. Remove the details if your title is unique without them.

A title is CLEAR. Avoid long modified nouns (a major source of imprecision and misunderstanding).

A title is EASY TO FIND. Its keywords are carefully chosen.

A title is HONEST and REPRESENTATIVE of the contribution and the paper. It sets the expectations and answers them.

A title is as CATCHY as can be. Remember, you only have one chance and 2 seconds to interest the reader. (Lebrun 2007, pp. 114 - 115)

3.LEARN MORE ABOUT ABSTRACTS Purpose of the abstract for the reader

1.It makes the title clear.

2.It provides details on the writer’s scientific contribution.

3.It helps the reader decide whether the article is worth reading or not.

4.It helps the reader rapidly gather competitive intelligence.

5.It helps the reader assess the level of difficulty of the article.

The abstract is NOT to be used for the following:

1.To mention the work of other researchers (it is the role of the introduction), except when your paper is an extension of a (one) previous paper, yours or that of another author.

2.To justify why the problem you have chosen is important (it is also the role of the introduction). Your abstract should concentrate on the importance of the results, not that of the problem. (Lebrun 2007, p. 113)

Purpose of the abstract for the writer

1.It allows the paper to be found more easily, because it has more keywords than the title.

2.It states the writer’s contribution in more precise detail than the title (adjectives in the title are frequent, but they should be rare in the abstract). You could also write two abstracts: one put together before starting your paper to capture the gist of the contribution, and the other written after your paper is complete to capture the heart and soul of the paper. The two may differ, for they serve different purposes: one guides, the other summarises.

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Qualities of an abstract

An abstract is COMPLETE. It has four parts (what, how, results, impact).

An abstract is TIED TO TITLE. All title words are found in the abstract.

An abstract is CONCISE. It is not longer than necessary, as a courtesy to the reader. Justification of research is best done through significant results.

An abstract is STAND-ALONE. It lives by itself in its own world: databases of abstracts, journal abstracts. It needs nothing.

An abstract is REPRESENTATIVE of the contribution of the paper. It sets expectations for the reader.

An abstract is PRESENT. Real. News. Not all abstracts have four parts, sometimes with good reason. A review paper that covers the state of the art in a particular domain has only one or two parts. Short papers (letters, reports) have one or two lines. “Extended” abstracts are wr itten prior to a conference, in some cases before the research is even completed; as a result, their parts 3 and 4 are shallow or missing. But, apart from these special cases, all abstracts should have four parts.” (Lebrun 2007, pp. 126 – 12 8)

Writing a Smashing Abstract Takes Practice!

‘An Abstract is the most important part of a scientific paper. It not only summarizes the salient aspects of the paper but also lures a reader into reading it!

It is likely the majority of people who read your paper would only read the Abstract. If you want to attract more people to read your article, it is the Abstract that will do it.

The biggest mistake in writing an Abstract is to mention that such and such "will be discussed". The Abstract is not a place for waffling; rather it is a succinct summary of the exact details of your findings. The most important data and findings are contained in it, NOT left out.

Start out the Abstract by telling exactly what you did and how you did it. Focus on the rationale and ideas of the study and why it's important in the first two sentences. For example, "This study determined impacts on fish community structure by manipulating prey numbers in a tide pool in Oregon, then used Stella simulation software to model community dynamics".

In the next few lines, focus on the materials and methods, and the data generated from the study. Tell the reader how the data were collected, compiled, and state statistical significance(s). Mention any new tools developed.

Avoid using bibliographic references in the Abstract unless they are absolutely essential to understanding the scholarship or results of the study. However, if your article follows directly from a published work and is a major advance on that specific piece of work, do cite the paper in the Abstract.

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The end of the Abstract is just as important as the beginning. This is where you want to hook the reader into examining into your paper! In addition, the concluding lines of the Abstract should lead into the first paragraph of the introduction without repeating what has been said. State the implications of your studies to the field of scholarship in which you are working.

Most of us wait until we finish writing the paper to write an Abstract. However, I suggest you make notes as you write the paper about the important parts of each section. When I'm done writing the paper, I read the paper over a few times, making a list of keywords as I read, then organize these (and my thoughts), and draft the Abstract.

With practice, writing good Abstracts will evolve from being a burden to a joy. You will see succinct summaries of your accomplishments appear. These will help you envision your next area of inquiry. In the process you will attract many people to your work; develop lifelong relationships; and contribute to the wonder of science. (http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/)

4.LEARN MORE ABOUT INTRODUCTIONS Purpose of the introduction for the reader

1.It brings the reader up to speed and reduces the initial knowledge gap.

2.It poses the problem, the proposed solution, and the scope in clear

terms.

3.It answers the questions raised by the title and the abstract.

Purpose of the introduction for the writer

1.It gives the writer a chance to loosen the tie, unbutton the collar, and write in a personal way to the reader.

2.It sets readers’ expectations for the yet unread part of the paper, and enhances (or not) their motivation to find out more in the rest of the paper.

3.It showcases the writer’s expertise in communication skills, scientific skills, and social skills.

4.It enables the writer to strengthen the contribution.

Qualities of an introduction

An introduction is MINDFUL. The author makes a real effort to assess and bridge the knowledge gap.

An introduction is STORY-LIKE. It has a plot that answers all the “why” questions of the reader one by one. It uses the active voice and includes the writer (“we”). Verbs are conjugated using various t enses: present, past, future.

An introduction is AUTHORITATIVE. References are accurate and numerous, comparisons are factual (not judgmental), related works are closely related, and imprecise words are absent.

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An introduction is COMPLETE. All “why’s” have their “because”. The key references are mentioned.

An introduction is CONCISE. No considerable or vacuous beginnings, no table-of-content paragraphs, no excessive details in answering the “why’s”, no historical panegyric. (Lebrun 2007, pp. 172–173) .

LEARN MORE ABOUT METHODS AND MATERIALS

What is it and why is it important?

The methodology section of a research report describes how you conducted your study and the methods you used to collect and analyse the data. The term 'methodology' refers to the general approach taken to the research process, while 'methods' refers more specifically to the various ways in which data is collected and analysed. Regardless of the field in which you are conducting your research, the overall aim of the methodology section is the same: to provide the reader with an overview of the methods employed so that a judgement can be made as to how appropriate they are given the objectives of the research, and how valid the data is that they have generated.

The following guidance notes are not intended to provide a comprehensive description and discussion of the various research methodologies, tools and techniques, but to alert you to a number of key issues you will need to consider in deciding and presenting your research methodology. You should discuss the details of individual methods and their suitability for your particular research with your tutor or supervisor.

The methodology you choose to use will serve as the underpinnings for your entire study, so your selection of the most suitable methodology is crucial. If you make bad choices at this early stage, they will have a ripple effect throughout your research, weakening its integrity and leading to questionable findings. Remember: your research is only as valid (and therefore valuable) as the methodology upon which it is based. Of course, there are many other factors that can affect the overall validity of your research - for example, how effectively you apply your methodology and how logical the deductions are that you make from your data; nevertheless, a study that is sound at the conceptual level is of primary importance. Implementing a poorly conceived study is like building a house on sand rather than on a firm foundation: it will never be secure and will eventually fail and collapse, and all the time and effort put into constructing it will be wasted.

In this section, then, you should present your methodology and rationale accurately and completely, but also as concisely as possible. You should also mention those methodological tools you considered but did not employ (particularly if they were used in related studies) and give the reason(s) why you decided not to use them your particular study. (Murray and Hughes 2008, p. 148)

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Managing the Method section

This is a relatively formulaic section in that there is a clearly marked out structure to follow, namely, three subsections: participants, materials or apparatus, procedure.

Participants

In this section, give enough details about the participants so that someone could repeat the study using people with the same characteristics. Hence, you will need to mention the number of participants, their gender, whether they are students, as well as how they were recruited. It's also important to mention whether participants volunteered and whether they were randomly assigned to experimental conditions.

Materials or Apparatus

Here you need to give details about the equipment required to carry out the study. This may include a particular type of technology, in which case you may need a model number and brand name. If you used a paper-pencil survey, which was designed specific ally for the study, then you need to provide enough details so that someone could replicate it, if they wanted to repeat the study. In such cases, it may be appropriate to attach a copy of the survey in an Appendix at the end of the report, and give general details in this section, but refer readers to the Appendix for a full copy. If a paper-pencil test is wellknown, you may only need to mention its name.

Procedure

In this section, you need to repeat the exact instructions that were given to the participants. If it is important in conducting the study to express instructions to participants using particular words and phrases, then mention these exactly as they were stated in the study. You may also need to include activities and tasks undertaken by the researcher.

The Method section can be the easiest to write because it follows a straightforward structure. Therefore, it is often the best section to start with when writing-up your report. (Bowker 2007, p. 85.)

Structure and style

“Organization is especially important in the Method s section of a lab report because readers must understand your experimental procedure completely. Many writers are surprised by the difficulty of conveying what they did during the experiment, since after all they're only reporting an event, but it's often tricky to present this information in a coherent way. There's a

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fairly standard structure you can use to guide you, and following the conventions for style can help clarify your points.

∙Subsections: Occasionally, researchers use subsections to report their procedure when the following circumstances apply: 1) if they've used a great many materials; 2) if the procedure is unusually complicated; 3) if they've developed a procedure that won't be familiar to many of their readers. Because these conditions rarely apply to the experiments you'll perform in class, most undergraduate lab reports won't require you to use subsections. In fact, many guides to writing lab reports suggest that you try to limit your Methods section to a single paragraph.

∙Narrative structure: Think of this section as telling a story about a group of people and the experiment they performed. Describe what you did in the order in which you did it. You may have heard the old joke centered on the line, "Disconnect the red wire, but only after disconnecting the green wire," where the person reading the directions blows everything to kingdom come because the directions weren't in order. We're used to reading about events chronologically, and so your readers will generally understand what you did if you present that information in the same way” (http://www.benthamscience.com/open/JrnlsBySub.htm).

LEARN MORE ABOUT DATA PRESENTATION

Results: turning data into knowledge

The data presentation in a scientific article aims to illustrate the story, present evidence to support or reject a hypothesis, and record important data and metadata. We verify, analyse, and display data to share, build, and legitimize new knowledge. To do this effectively we must present all necessary data in ways which make the most important points most prominent. Data presentation is also an exercise in deciding which datasets or details to leave out of the article. If you have decided to include figures or tables, they should be numbered and presented sequentially and referred to in that order in the text.

Many journals now accept additional data which support or extend the story as appendices or supplementary online data. For each data element in your paper you should ask yourself if it is necessary to the story of the paper, or not essential but valuable for those who might access it in an online archive. Remember, the referees will be asked to comment on whether all the tables and figures are necessary, and this will include the supplementary material.

Data presentation styles vary with discipline and personal preference and change over time, and there is a large amount of contradictory published advice about what to do, and what looks good. Our aim is not to provide a

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concrete set of rules for data presentation but rather to help you optimize the presentation of your data to support the story of your article. One over-arching guideline is that tables and figures should “stand alone”: that is the reader should not need to consult the text of the article to understand the data presented in the table or figure; all necessary information should appear in the table/figure, in the title/legend, or in keys or footnotes.

The first reference for style of data presentation is the Instructions to Contributors (sometimes called Instructions to Authors or Author Guidelines, or other similar names) of the journal you intend to submit the article to. Not all Instructions to Contributors provide great detail about data presentation, but they will generally guide you in formatting and preferred style. The next best source of information on data presentation style is articles in recent issues of the journal. You can maximize your chances of meeting the journal’s requirements by analysing the types of data presented, the choice of figures or tables, the choice of figure type, and the amount of data presented in the text and in the titles and legends. Use the results of your analyses to inform your decisions on the data presentation for your own manuscript. (Cargill 2009, p. 23).

LEARN MORE ABOUT DISCUSSION

The Discussion Section: Your Closing Argument

In the judicial system in many countries, a jury decides the final outcome in a court case. The proceedings begin with a lawyer providing an opening statement telling the jury what he or she plans to present. Through a variety of chosen tactics and methods, the lawyer then presents the various pieces of evidence, all of which lead up to the closing argument. A poor closing argument can hurt even the best case. A great closing argument can convince the jury that the evidence is sound and the lawyer’s interpretation of it has merit. In the original Law & Order TV show, which incorporated both the investigation of a crime and the courtroom proceedings, the closing arguments were often the most compelling and defining moments in the show. The Discussion section in a scientific paper and the closing argument in a courtroom have similarities. For many readers, the most important information is not what your results show but what your results mean. The purpose of the Discussion section is to explain what your results mean and what contribution your paper makes to the field of study. The Discussion section is your closing argument. Numerous scientists have told me that when reading a paper they first look at the Abstract to get an overview of the topic and the purported findings. If the topic appears to be of interest, they then skip to the Discussion section. If the Discussion is neither stimulating nor convincing about the meaning and importance of the findings, it does not really matter how the

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experiments were performed or what results were reported. A poor Discussion detracts from a scientific paper. A good Discussion adds a strong finish to a scientific paper. It brings meaning to your study. My goal with this article is to help you understand the characteristics of a good Discussion section.

Final Thoughts

There is a well-known saying, “You don’t get a seco nd chance to make a first impression.” This saying certainly holds true if you consider the importance of the title and abstract of a scientific paper; however, for scientific papers there should also be a saying, “You don’t ge t a second chance to make a final impression.” The Discussion is your opportu nity to make a good final impression. (Annesley 2010, pp. 1671-1674)

LEARN MORE ABOUT CONCLUSION

Purpose of the conclusion for the reader

1.It brings better closure to what has been announced in the introduction by contrasting precontribution with postcontribution. What was unproven, unver ified, unexplained, unknown, partial, or limit ed is now proven, verified, explained, known , complete, or general.

2.It allows readers to understand the contribution better and in greater detail than in the abstract so as to evaluate its usefulness to them.

Purpose of the conclusion for the writer

1.It restates the contribution, with a particular emphasis on what it allows others to do.

2.It proposes new research directions to prevent duplication of effort or to encourage collaboration.

Qualities of a conclusion

A conclusion is POSITIVELY CHARGED. It maintains the excitement created in the introduction.

A conclusion has PREDICTABLE content. There are no surprises. Every thing has been stated in the other parts of the paper.

A conclusion is CONCISE. Restate the contribution. Close the door. Open new doors.

A conclusion is COHERENT with the title, abstract, and introduction. It is a part of one same story. (Lebrun 2007, pp. 200– 201, 205–206)

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VOCABULARY

A
abundant		a.			обильный,	широко	распространённый,	часто
					встречающийся
accessible		a.			досягаемый, доступный
accurate a.					точный; тщательный
address v.					обращать внимание (на что-либо), задумываться (о чём-
					либо), исследовать
agenda	n.				повестка дня, план, программа
alternating			a.		меняющийся, переменный
alteration		n.			изменение, модификация
announce		v.			объявлять, сообщать
appalling		a			ужасный, ужасающий, страшный, отталкивающий
approach		n.			подход, метод, способ
arrange	v.				располагать, размещать; компоновать; систематизировать,
					классифицировать
assimilate		v.			ассимилировать, усваивать, поглощать
assure	v.				убеждать, уверять; гарантировать, обеспечивать
B
background			n.		предварительные знания, предпосылки создания; фон
brief v.					краткий, сжатый; лаконичный
C
care about		v.			проявлять интерес
catchy	a.				броский, притягательный, привлекающий внимание
citation	n.				цитата, ссылка
cite v.					цитировать, приводить цитату, ссылаться
clustering		n.			кластеризация, создание кластеров
common a.					общий, общепринятый, распространённый
complete		a.			законченный, завершённый
concise	a.				краткий; сжатый; лаконичный, немногословный
consider v.					рассматривать, думать, полагать, считать
contradictory				a.	противоречивый
D
derive	v.				выводить, получать, извлекать
deteriorate			v.		ухудшаться; разрушаться; изнашиваться; портиться
disagreement				n.	расхождение во мнениях; разногласие
drug n.					медикамент, лекарство; лекарственный препарат;
E
eliminate		v.			устранять, исключать; игнорировать
emphasize			v.		подчёркивать, акцентировать
essentially			adv.		по существу;
evaluation		n.			оценка, определение (качества, важности, пригодности)
exploit	v.				пользоваться, использовать, эксплуатировать

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F
familiar a.			хорошо знакомый
fascinating		a.	привлекательный
fast Fourier			быстрое преобразование Фурье
transform
fatigue	n.		усталость
findings n.			полученные данные; сведения
fit v.			подходить, соответствовать (чему-л.)
framework		n.	структура, структурная схема; система отсчета; каркас
further	adv.		далее, затем
G
gap n.			пробел, пропуск, лакуна
generic	a.		родовой, видовой, общий, групповой
greenback		n.	банкнота
H
handful n.			небольшое количество, горстка
high-cost a.			дорогостоящий, затратный
I
immediately adv.			прямо, непосредственно
insight	n.		понимание, способность разобраться в существе вопроса
interrupt v.			прерывать, нарушать
J
justify	v.		подтверждать, доказывать, оправдывать, обосновывать
K
killjoy	n.		человек, отравляющий другим удовольствие; брюзга,
			ворчун
L
loss-free			без потерь
M
measure v.			измерять, соразмерять; соотноситься, приводить в
			соответствие
merge	v.		сливаться, соединяться; поглощать
monitor v.			отслеживать, контролировать, управлять, регулировать
N
namely	adv.		а именно, то есть
O
obtain	v.		получать, достигать
overcome v.			преодолевать
overly	adv.		чрезмерно, излишне, избыточно, слишком
overview n.			обзор

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P
performance n.					рабочие характеристики; эксплуатационные показатели;
					качество обработки; работа, функционирование; кпд
prediction			n.		прогнозирование, предопределение
prevalent			a.		превалирующий, преобладающий, общепринятый
prominent				a.	выступающий, бросающийся в глаза
R
reference			n		сноска, ссылка
			v.		делать ссылки, сноски
reach	n.				охват, диапазон
reduce	v.				сводить, сокращать, уменьшать
reduction			n.		уменьшение, сокращение
relevant		a.			относящийся к делу, релевантный; значимый;
					существенный; важный
representative a.					отображающий, символизирующий, репрезентативный,
					показательный
shortage		n.			недостаток, нехватка
robust	a.				надежный, трудоемкий
S
search engine					поисковая система, поисковая служба, поисковый механизм
service life				nn.	срок службы, долговечность
set-up	n.				установка, устройство
shortcoming n.					недостаток, изъян
single out			v.		выделять
spread	v.				распространяться, развертывать, раскрывать
stand-alone				a.	автономный, функционально-законченный
summarize				v.	суммировать, резюмировать, подводить итог
T
testify	v.				свидетельствовать, подтверждать
threaten		v.			грозить, представлять угрозу
thoroughly				adv.	тщательно
U
underlying				a.	лежащий в основе
uniform		a.			единообразный; однородный; равномерный
V
validity		n.			надежность, обоснованность, общезначимость,
					правильность, применимость
verification				n.	проверка, контроль, подтверждение
versatile		a.			универсальный, многофункциональный
W
way n.					способ, средство
worth	a.				Заслуживающий, стоящий

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