of sperm in men (inside the follicles of the

testes). See also THYROID STIMULATING HOR-

MONE (TSH), GRAVE’S DISEASE, PROTEIN, HOR-

MONE, PITUITARY GLAND.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) T h e federal agency charged with approving all pharmaceutical and food ingredient products sold within the U.S. In 1992, prior to approval of any of the biotechnologyderived food crop plants, the FDA decided that food crops produced via “biotechnological (i.e., recombinant) technologies” must meet the same rigorous safety standards as those created via “traditional breeding methods,” both categories of which are regulated by the FDA. Historically, new food crops created via “traditional breeding technologies” (e.g., crossing with wild type in order to confer disease resistance, increased yield, etc. on the resultant domesticated plant varieties/strains) have sometimes contained unexpectedly high levels of known (and naturally occurring) toxins (e.g., solanine, a naturally occurring toxin in potatoes and some other plants, psoralene, a naturally occurring toxin in celery, etc.). See also KOSEISHO, COM-

MITTEE FOR PROPRIETARY MEDICINAL PRODUCTS

(CPMP), COMMITTEE FOR VETERINARY MEDICINAL

PRODUCTS (CVMP), COMMITTEE ON SAFETY IN MED-

ICINES, WILD TYPE, STRAIN, “TREATMENT” IND REG-

ULATIONS, KEFAUVER RULE, IND, IND EXEMPTION,

RECOMBINANT DNA (rDNA), PHASE I CLINICAL TEST-

ING, EUROPEAN MEDICINES EVALUATION AGENCY

(EMEA), MEDICINES CONTROL AGENCY (MCA),

BUNDESGESUNDHEITSAMT (BGA), TRADITIONAL

BREEDING METHODS, SOLANINE, PSORALENE.

Food Good Manufacturing Practice (FGMP) The Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA’s) approval mechanism for a process to manufacture a given food or food additive. It is implemented instead of specific regulations (such as those used to dictate processes in simple food manufacture, as in beef packing), due to the newness of the technology, and may later be superceded due to further advances in the technology.

See also FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION

(FDA).

Footprinting A technique used by researchers to determine precisely where (on a DNA molecule) certain DNA-binding proteins

make specific contact with that DNA molecule. For example, certain types of drugs act by binding tightly to certain DNA molecules in specific locations (e.g., in order to halt cancerous growth of cells). See also DEOXY-

RIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA), PROTEIN, GENOTOXIC.

For Treatment IND See “T R E A T M E N T ” I N D

REGULATIONS.

Formaldehyde Dehydrogenase An enzyme which catalyzes the oxidation of formalde-

hyde to formic acid (formate at intracellular F pH). It requires NAD (nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide) as an electron acceptor. It is important in the metabolism of methanol.

See also METABOLISM, ENZYME, NAD (NADH,

NADP, NADPH), CATALYST.

Forward Mutation A mutation from the wild (natural) type to the mutant type. See also

MUTATION, WILD TYPE.

FOS See FRUCTOSE OLIGOSACCHARIDES.

FOSHU A Japanese government designation meaning “Foods of Specified Health Use.” Introduced in the early 1980s, these are foods or food ingredients that meet the following specific criteria:

1.Must improve human nutrition and health. A benefit to human health and nutrition must be proven for that food/ingredient.

2.An appropriate daily dose (amount to be consumed) must be confirmed by doctors or dieticians.

3.The food/ingredient must guarantee balanced nourishment.

4.The active component (e.g., phytochemical) must be scientifically confirmed regarding its quantitative and qualitative definition, and its chemical and/or physical features.

5.The active component must not lower nutritional value (e.g., of the food it is added to).

6.The food/ingredient must be consumed in a normal fashion (i.e., eaten or drank, not as pill or powder form).

7.The active component must be of natural origin. Some of the foods/ingredients designated “FOSHU” have been those containing polyphenols, anthocyanins, and diacylglycerols.

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

OLIGOSACCHA-

See also NUTRACEUTICALS, PHYTOCHEMICALS,

MANNANOLIGOSACCHARIDES, FRUCTOSE OLIGOSACCHARIDES, ANTHOCYANINS, POLYPHENOLS,

DIACYLGLYCEROLS.

Foundation on Economic Trends A s m a l l organization that lobbies against agricultural biotechnology. See also BIOTECHNOLOGY.

Frameshift A shift (displacement) of the reading frame in a DNA or RNA molecule. Frameshifts generally result from the addi-

Ftion or deletion of one or more nucleotidesto or from the DNA or RNA molecule. See

also READING FRAME, CODON, GENETIC CODE,

MUTATION, DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA),

NUCLEOTIDE, RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA), CENTRAL

DOGMA (NEW).

Free Energy The component of the total energy of a system that can do work at a constant temperature and pressure. Also known as Gibbs free energy. Free energy is a key variable calculated and monitored for different (proposed) drug molecules or drug/target interactions during rational drug design activities (e.g., molecular modeling).

See also RATIONAL DRUG DESIGN, TARGET (of a

therapeutic agent), ACTIVATION ENERGY.

Free Fatty Acids (F.F.A.) Individual fatty acid molecules within a vegetable oil, which exist in an uncombined-with-glycerine molecular state. The presence of F.F.A. can be caused by naturally occurring noncombination (e.g., in some varieties of oilseeds), sprouting of the oilseeds prior to processing into vegetable oil, or breakdown of the fat (oil) during processing or usage. See also

FATS, FATTY ACID, SATURATED FATTY ACIDS,

UNSATURATED FATTY ACID.

Free Radical Sometimes called Reactive Oxygen Species, Singlet Oxygen, or Oxygen Free Radical. Term utilized to refer to an oxygen (atom) bearing an “extra” electron. Because of that, it possesses a large amount of energy, and in a biological system (i.e., inside the body of an organism), it can damage body tissues when it “discharges” that

energy. See also OXIDATIVE STRESS, ANTIOXIDANTS, HUMAN SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE (hSOD),

CAROTENOIDS, CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID

(CLA), INSULIN.

Fructan A general term utilized to refer to any carbohydrate in which fructosyl-fructose

(molecule) linkages constitute the majority of the molecule’s glycosidic bonds (i.e., between atoms in the molecule). See also

CARBOHYDRATES (saccharides),

RIDES, FRUCTOSE OLIGOSACCHARIDES, GLYCOSIDE.

Fructo Oligosaccharides See FRUCTOSE OLIGO-

SACCHARIDES.

Fructose Oligosaccharides A “family” of oligosaccharides, some of which help foster the growth of bifidobacteria in the lower colon of monogastric animals (humans, swine, etc.). Those bifidobacteria generate certain short-chain fatty acids, which are absorbed by the colon and result in a reduction of triglyceride (fat) and cholesterol levels in the bloodstream, thereby lowering risk of coronary heart disease and thrombosis. Research indicates they also promote absorption of calcium from foods (in the large intestine). Fructose oligosaccharides are classifed as a “water soluble fiber” (by the European Union’s government food regulatory agencies), because humans cannot digest them.

See also BIFIDOBACTERIA, BIFIDUS, INULIN,

FOSHU, OLIGOSACCHARIDES, NUTRACEUTICALS,

CHOLESTEROL, HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS

(HDLPs), LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (LDLPs),

BACTERIA, FATTY ACID, PREBIOTICS, MANNANOLI-

GOSACCHARIDES (MOS), CORONARY HEART

DISEASE (CHD), TRIGLYCERIDES, THROMBOSIS.

Fumarase (fum) An enzyme that catalyzes the hydration (addition of hydrogen atoms) of fumaric acid to maleic acid, as well as the reverse dehydration reaction (removal of hydrogen atoms). See also ENZYME, CATALYST.

Fumaric Acid (C4H4O4) A dicarboxylic organic acid produced commercially by chemical synthesis and fermentation; the trans isomer of maleic acid; colorless crystals, melting point 87°C (191°F); used to make resins, paints, varnishes and inks, in food as a mordant (dye fixer/stabilizer), and as a chemical intermediate. Also known as BOLETIC

ACID. See also ACID, ISOMER, BOLETIC ACID.

Fumonisins Mycotoxins that are primarily produced by the fungus Fusarium moniliforme (e.g., in insect-damaged corn/maize). Consumption of fumonisins by horses and swine can be fatal to those animals. Consumption of fumonisins by other animals (including humans) can result in tumors (e.g.,

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

	cancer of the esophagus, in humans). See	MOLECULE), PLEIOTROPIC, GENETIC CODE,
	also MYCOTOXINS, FUNGUS, FUSARIUM, FUSARIUM	EXPRESSED SEQUENCE TAGS, INFORMATIONAL
	MONILIFORME, EUROPEAN CORN BORER (ECB).	MOLECULES, POINT MUTATION, SITE-DIRECTED
	Functional Foods Refers to foods that provide	M U T A G E N E S I S ( S D M ) , A N T I S E N S E ( D N A
	health benefits beyond basic nutrition. See	SEQUENCE), REPORTER GENE, METHYLATION, ZINC
	also NUTRACEUTICALS, PHYTOCHEMICALS, FOSHU.	FINGER PROTEINS, DNA METHYLATION, POSI-
	Functional Genomics Study of, or discovery	TIONAL CLONING, CHEMICAL GENETICS, GENE
	of, what traits/functions (generally via pro-	SILENCING, DROSOPHILA, CAENORHABDITIS ELE-
	teins expressed) are conferred to an organ-	GANS, CENTRAL DOGMA (NEW), TRANSCRIPTION
	ism by given (gene) sequences. The timing	FACTORS, SIGNAL TRANSDUCERS AND ACTIVA-
	and location of the expression of those genes	TORS OF TRANSCRIPTION (STATs), GENE EXPRES-
			F
	is also impacted by external/environmental	SION ANALYSIS, GENE FUNCTION ANALYSIS,
	factors sometimes, i.e., temperature, sun-	PATHWAY, PATHWAY FEEDBACK MECHANISMS,
	light, humidity, the presence of signal trans-	CASCADE.
	ducers and activators of transcription	Functional Group A molecule, or portion of
	(STATs), etc. Also impacting the func-	a molecule, that will react with other mole-
	tions/traits are interactions among genes,	cule(s). For example, “hedgehog proteins”
	signaling cascades, and response/reaction	must first add a cholesterol molecule (to
	mechanisms within the body of that organ-	themselves) before they can carry out their
	ism. Typically, functional genomic study fol-	task of directing/controlling tissue differen-
	lows after discovery of gene sequences found	tiation during mammal embryo development
	via structural genomics study. Some methods	(into various organs, limbs, etc.). An “acetyl
	utilized to determine which traits/functions	(functional) group” must be added to a cho-
	result from which gene(s) are:	line molecule in order for the body to have
		the critical neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
	1. Site-directed mutagenesis (SDM), to	See also PROTEIN, PEPTIDE, HEDGEHOG PROTEINS,
	compare two same-species organisms	CHOLESTEROL, ACETYL CHOLINE, NEUROTRANS-
	possessing two different genes at the	MITTER, SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION.
	same site on the genome.	Fungicide Any chemical compound toxic to
	2. Antisense DNA sequence, to compare	fungi. See also BIOCIDE, FUNGUS.
	two same-species organisms (one of	Fungus (plural: fungi) Any of a major group
	which has gene at same site “turned	of saprophytic and parasitic plants that lack
	off” via antisense DNA).	chlorophyll and flowers, including molds,
	3. Reporter gene, to compare two same-	toadstools, rusts, mildews, smuts, ergot,
	species organisms (with two different	mushrooms Aqaricus bisporus, and yeasts.
	genes at same site on genome) via a	Under certain conditions (temperature,
	“reporter” gene adjacent to gene/site, to	humidity, etc.), some fungi can produce
	detect presence of desired trait/function.	mycotoxins via their metabolism. See also
	4. Chemical genetics, to compare two	RUSTS, ASPERGILLUS FLAVUS, MYCOTOXINS,
	same-species organisms (one of which	FUSARIUM, AFLATOXIN, FUMONISINS, VOMITOXIN,
	has gene at same site on DNA molecule	DON, ERGOTAMINE, METABOLISM.
	at least partially inactivated by a spe-	Furanose A sugar molecule containing the
	cifical chemical).	five-membered furan ring. See also SUGAR
	5. “Silencing” or “knocking out” a partic-	MOLECULES.
	ular gene via other methods than anti-	Fusaric Acids See FUSARIUM MONILIFORME.
	sense or chemical genetics, to compare.	Fusarium A genus of fungus, also known as
		“scab,” that infests certain grains (e.g., wheat
	See also GENOMICS, TRAIT, GENE, GENOTYPE,	Triticum aestivum, corn or maize Zea
	PHENOTYPE, POLYGENIC, EXPRESS, STRUCTURAL	mays L., etc.) during growing seasons in
	GENE, STRUCTURAL GENOMICS, DEOXYRIBO-	which climate (e.g., high humidity, cool
	NUCLEIC ACID (DNA), SEQUENCE (OF A DNA	weather) and other conditions combine to

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

enable rapid growth/proliferation of the fungus. In wheat, fungus infestation (Fusarium head blight) causes the wheat plant to weaken and to produce empty seed heads, which reduces yield.

As a by-product of their metabolism, some of the Fusarium types (species) produce deoxynivalenol (also known as DON or “vomitoxin”), zearalenone, and fumonisins (a group of very potent mycotoxins that are produced

Fliferatum fungi). Fumonisin B1 is the most prevalent Fusarium-produced mycotoxin in corn (maize). Its presence can cause livestock to refuse to eat infested feed, decrease reproductive efficiency in swine, and even kill horses (via equine leukoencephalomalacia).

When consumed by humans, fumonisin B1 induces cell death via apoptosis; the tissues that are adjacent to killed cells respond with cell replication/proliferation to replace the lost cells.

Fumonisin B1 inhibits the enzyme ceramide synthetase (which is crucial to the biosynthetic pathway for the creation of sphingolipids in cells), resulting in accumulation of sphinganine in cells, and decreases ceramides and complex sphingolipids. These internal changes signal the cells to die via apoptosis (“programmed cell death”), especially liver and kidney cells.

Maximum fumonisin content allowed in flour (for U.S. bread) is one part per million. Maximum fumonisin content allowed in U.S. malting barley (Hordeum vulgare) is zero.

In 1997, Iowa State University research showed that B.t. corn varieties (which express the B.t. protoxin in the corn ears) have significantly less ear mold caused by Fusarium

fungi. That is because the European corn borer (ECB) is a vector (carrier) of Fusarium.by Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium pro-

See also FUNGUS, MYCOTOXINS, TOXIN, METABOLISM, APOPTOSIS, ENZYME INHIBITION, LIPIDS,

VOMITOXIN, DON, DEOXYNIVALENOL, BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS (B.t.), EUROPEAN CORN BORER

(ECB), CD95 PROTEIN, SOYBEAN CYST NEMATODES

(SCN), ZEARALENONE, FUSARIUM MONILIFORME.

Fusarium moniliforme One of the Fusarium fungi; therefore it can produce one or more fumonisins (a group of mycotoxins) under certain environmental conditions, when it

grows in some grains (see the entry for

Fusarium). When Fusarium moniliforme grows within growing plants of domesticated rice (Oryza sativa), it can cause the plant disease known as Bakanae (also known as “foolish seedling” disease). Symptoms of Bakanae include rice plants that are much taller than normal rice plants, and leaves that are much longer than normal. That abnormal growth (of rice plant/leaves) is caused by a gibberellin compound excreted by the

Fusarium moniliforme fungus. The fungus also excretes fusaric acids, which can stunt or kill rice plants. See also FUSARIUM, MYC-

OTOXINS, FUMONISINS, FUNGUS, GIBBERELLINS.

Fusion Protein A protein consisting of all or part of the amino acid sequences (known as the “domain”) of two or more proteins. Formed by fusing the two protein-encoding genes (which causes the ribosome to subsequently produce the fusion protein). This fusion is often done deliberately, either to put the expression of one of the (fused) genes under the control of the strong promoter for the first gene, or to allow the gene of interest (which is difficult to assay) to be more easily studied via substituting some of the (gene) protein with a more easily measured (assayed) function. For example, by fusing a difficult-to-study gene with the β-galactosi- dase gene, the (protein) product that results can easily be measured (assayed) using chromatography. See also PROTEIN, AMINO ACID,

SEQUENCE (OF A PROTEIN MOLECULE), GENE,

R I B O S O M E S , P R O M O T E R, A S S A Y, C O D I N G

SEQUENCE, DOMAIN (OF A PROTEIN), GENE

FUSION.

Fusion Toxin A fusion protein that consists of a toxic protein (domain) plus a cell receptor binding region (protein domain). The cell receptor portion (of the total fusion toxin molecule) delivers the toxin directly to the (diseased) cell, thus sparing other healthy tissues from the effect of the toxin. See also

FUSION PROTEIN, TOXIN, RICIN, PROTEIN, PROTEIN

ENGINEERING, DOMAIN (OF A PROTEIN), RECEP-

TORS, ENDOCYTOSIS.

Fusogenic Agent Any compound, virus, etc., that causes cells to fuse together. For example, one of the effects of the HIV (i.e., AIDScausing) viruses is to cause the T cells of the

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC